'AL HISTORY 



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OMAN, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY 
J,. ROBHRT E. PEARr, U. S. NAVY 



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THE WORLD FLAT GLOBE 

AND 

INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL 
HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF 

JOSEPH EDMUND WOODMAN, A.M., Sc.D. 

Professor of Geography and Geologj', New York University. 
Fellow, Geological Society of America, American Geo- 
graphical Society, New York Academy of Sciences; Mem- 
ber, Washington Academy of Sciences, National Geo- 
graphic Society. 

ROBERT EDWIN PEARY, LL.D. 

REAR ADMIRAL, U.S.N. (Retired) 

Discoverer of the North Pole. Gold medallist of many Amer- 
ican and foreign geographic societies. President, 8th 
International Geograi)hical Congress; President for tliree 
years, American Geographical Society. Chairman, Na- 
tional Aerial Coast Patrol Commission, U. S. A. 

ASSOCIATE EDITORS 

WILLIAM THOMAS BLAINE 

Journalist and Historian. Originator of tliis Twentieth Cen- 
tury System of World-wide and International Geography, 
comprised in The World Fi^\t-Globe and Inter.n.vtional 
Geographical Historv. 

FRANCIS TREVELYAN MILLER, Litt.D , LL.D. 

Founder and for four years Editor-in-Chief, Journal of 
American History. Author of numerous historical works. 

JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP, A.B. 

Secretary, Isthmian Canal Commission, 1905-1914. 

JACQUES WARDLAW REDWAY 

Geographer and Meteorologist. Fellow, Royal Geographical 
SvK'iety; Honorary Fellow, Universidad Nacional La 
Plata, Argentina. 




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PUBLISHER'S STATEMENT 

The World Flat-Globe and International Geographical History 
(two parts) comprise together a new and wonderfully convenient 
twentieth-century system of world-wide and international review 
and reference. Each is necessary to the intelligent and satisfac- 
tory use of the other. They are complete, up-to-the-minute, con- 
cise and exhaustive and leave nothing to be desired in reviewing 
past history and following current events. They have been most 
carefully prepared and edited by the master minds of the geo- 
graphical world. 

The P^'lat-Globe pictures the entire earth's surface at a glance 
— all lands and waters, in proper size, proportion and relation, 
as maps, atlases and charts cannot do. The History explains and 
describes ail the forces and movements of Nature and man's 
activities and pursuits upon the earth from the earliest records 
to his wonderful and varied achievements of today; through the 
slow movements of his conquest of Nature, the annihilation of 
time and distance in intercommunication and transportation, and 
his progress in social and governmental life, as well as the pro- 
duction and distribution of products of the soil, mines and sea, 
and in the multitude of industries he has developed and organized 
and the national and international financial systems necessary to 
their successful prosecution. 

The following chapters tell the story of the ages in clear and 
simple form, more interesting and fascinating than any romance 
or novel. Man's thousands of years of continuous mental effort 
and physical labor, and the expenditure of untold wealth, have 
produced the conditions of human life of today. 

The reading of this story gives the ''wide horizon's broader 
view" and is an education in itself for every man, woman and 
child. 

The Flat-Globe and History are offered at a price so low as 
to be within the easy reach of everyone. Every place of learning, 
home, office and place of business can now have a beautiful large 
"World-Globe and complete International Geographical History. 
They are pronounced by the leading minds best qualified to judge, 
the greatest production of intelligence the world has ever seen at 
the price. 

World Flat-Globe Corporation. 
Ui 



LIST OF PLATES 

Typical Cloud Forms 43 

Rainfall of the World 45 

Climatic Belts of the World 55 

Ocean Depths 59 

Wind and Ocean Currents of the World 63 

Distribution of Domestic Animals 67 

Density of Population of the World 71 

Panama Canal and Canal Zone 115 

Gatun Locks Looking South 121 

U. S. S. Ohio Passing Cucaraeha Slide 123 

Rainfall in the United States 283 

Navigable Rivers and Coastwise Steamship Lines . . . 285 

Principal Railroads and Standard Time Belts .... 287 

Arial Routes of the United States 289 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 

Physical Geography 2 

The Earth as a Whole 3 

A Family of Worlds, 3. 

The lOarth in Space, '.i. 

Shape, Size and Density, 3. 

'I'lie Earlli's I'arls, 4. 

How the lOailh (;iew, 5. 

Rotation and Its EITects, 6. 

The Kaitli's Revolution, 6. 

Cardinal Points, 7. 

Direction, 7. 

TiMrestrial Magnetism and Compass Direction, 7. 

Latitude, H. 

Longitude, !). 

Longitude and Time, 10. 

The International Dale Line. 11. 

Inclination of the ICarth's Axis, and Its Effects, 11. 

The Seasons and Agriculture, 12. 

Earth and Sky 13 

Stars and Their Motions, 13. 

Comets, 14. 

Meteors, l.T. 

Phases of the Moon, 16. 

Eclipses, 17. 

The Lands 19 

General Relief Features 19 

Land and Water, 19. 
The Continents. 20. 
Surfaci' of the Continents, 20. 
Islands, 21. 

Agents of Change 22 

Heat of the Interior — Rock Movement — Weathering, 22. 

Wind — Running Water, 23. 

Snow and Ice. 24. 

Water of Lakes and Seas, 25. 

Land Forms 26 

Mountains, 26. 

Volcanoes, 29. 

Earthquakes. 31. 

riafeaus — Plains, 33. 

Valleys. 34. 

Divides — Lakes. S.'J. 

The "Glacial Accident." 37. 

The Life History of Land Forms, 37. 

The Atmosphere 39 

<Jeneral Character, 39. 

Temperature and Its Measurement, 39. 

I'resRure and Its Measurement, 41. 

Moisture, 41. 

Dew and Frost — Fog, 42. 

Clouds— Rainfall. 44. 

Rnlnhows. Halos. and Mirages. 46. 

Winds. 47. 

Storms and Fair Weather, .'iO. 

Thunderstorms — Aurora Horenlis. .'>2. 

Weather and Its Forecastlnc. r>.1. 

The " Pllmsoll Line" and Marine Insurance, 54. 

Climate, r,4. 

The Ocean 5g 

Ceneral Characteristics. .IS. 

The Ocean Floor — Temperature, 60. 

Tides. 61. 

Waves — Currents, 62. 

V 



VI 



CONTENTS 



Life of the Earth 

Life of the Earth, Air, and Water, G5. 

Distiibution of Animal Life 6G. 

Distribution of Vegetable Life, 68. 

The Ages of Men — 'I'be Uaces of Men, 68. 

Man's Conquest of Nature — The Era of Scientific Progress, 72. 

Industrial and Commercial, Geography 
Geographic Factors of Industries and Commerce 

liOcation, 74. 
Topography, 75. 
Climate, 76. 
Earth Resources, 77. 

Raw Materials and Their Industries . 

Mineral Resources and Industries, 78. 

Mining, Smelting, and Uetining, 80. 

Soils, 81. 

Irrigation and Agriculture — Agriculture and Land, 82. 

Foodstuffs, 83. 

Materials for Clothing and Shelter, 85. 

Manufacturing Industries 



65 



72 
74 



78 



Power Development — Varieties of Manufacture, 88. 

Essentials and Luxuries — Paper, Kulibor. Leathei. and Clothing, 89. 

Machinery, Ship-l)uilding, and Metal Industries, 90. 

Chemical Industries — The Esthetic Industries, 91. 

Marketing the World's Goods .... 

Principles of Trade — Location of Industries, 93. 
Financial Machinery of Trade, 94. 
Geography and Advertising, 95. 

Transportation and Communication 

Highways — Automobiles, 96. 

Canals and Rivers, 98. 

Railways, 99. 

Navigation of the Air, 100. 

Urban and Interurban Transportation, 101. 

Communication of Intelligence .... 

Mail Systems, 102. 

The Telegraph and Cable — The Telephone, 103. 

Wireless Telegraphy and Telephone, 104. 

The World's Ocean Highway .... 

Development of Ocean Transportation, 104. 

" Freedom of the Seas," 105. 

Sailing Vessels, 106. 

Wooden. Steel, and Concrete Power Ships, 106. 

Submersible Shii)s, 106. 

Sources of Ships' I'ower, 107. 

Trade Routes 

<Jreat Circle Sailing, 108. 

Full- and Low-Powered Steamship Lanes, 108. 

The Tramp — The Liner, 108. 

Oceanic Trade Routes — Continental Trade Routes. 109. 

Development of Terminal Cities, 109. 

Development of Line Traffic, 110. 

Trade Centers of the World . 

Typos of Cities — Seaports — Cities That Are Brokers, 111 

Transportation and Inland Cities, 111. 

The United States and World Commerce, 112. 



The Panama Isthmian Canal 
The Suez Canal . 



Some Features of the Flat-Globe 
National and Political Geography 
Political Divisions of the World . 

Sovereign Nations and Independent States, 140. 
Colonies and Other Dependencies, 141. 

Description of the Earth's Political Divisions 



93 
96 

102 
104 

108 

111 

113 
130 
134 
140 
140 

141 



INTRODUCTION 

PRACTICAL FACTS ABOUT THE RECONSTRUCTED 

WORLD 

This International Geographical History of the Recon- 
structed World, with its accompanying Flat-Globe, has the 
epoch-making distinction of being the first work by American 
geographers, cartographers and economists, to follow the Treaty 
of Versailles and the close of the Great War. The purpose of this 
Introduction is to present in concise form the practical facts con- 
cerning "the world in which we live," with outlines of the geo- 
graphical and political changes that hav^e been created by the 
World War. 

The Reconstructed World — The human race in its seven 
thousand years of recorded development has passed through three 
great epochs. Geologists find that the age of the earth is millions 
of years, but the activities of mankind cover a comparatively brief 
space. We, who live in the world today, are witnessing the birth 
of a new era; we are, in fact, laying the foundations for the build- 
ing of a new age of human progress — the fourth great epoch. 

The close of the World War definitely marks the beginning of 
this new epoch. It witnesses the collapse of old systems, and 
upon its ruins we are to erect new groups of nations, with new 
political alignments (as shown on the Flat-Globe), with new 
economic standards, new sociological ideals, new spiritual realiza- 
tions. This is a new age in every phase of human progress, and 
is marked among other manifestations by great scientific discov- 
eries. The first of these epochal changes is indicated by the rapid 
development of aerial navigation and wireless communication, in 
which time and space are almost annihilated. 

At the beginning of this P'ourth Epoch, nearly two billion 
human beings walk the earth. The possibilities in human advance- 
ment are incalculable. It is generally agreed by scientists that 
man has hardly begun to solve the problems of existence; for each 



viii INTRODUCTION 

discovery that lie has made there are innumerable more to be 
revealed. 

There never has been a time when there were so many oppor- 
tunities in the world. Opportunities are procreative and increase 
with time; each opportunity creates thousands of new opportuni- 
ties. Every new invention and every increase in intelligence 
develops multitudes of new possibilities, which in turn create new 
fortunes for the individual — and thus increase the wealth of the 
world. Man has not yet begun to realize the powers within him- 
self and within his reach. The problems of human freedom, eco- 
nomic emancipation, higher moral concepts, truer sense of equity 
and justice, are matters of expanding intelligence which are 
'brought about by scientific discoveries that improve or revolu- 
tionize the mode of life. 

Geographical knowledge is the foundation of a real and full 
education. It is the first step in all progress. It is the measure- 
ment by which we calculate each new step in the world's develop- 
ment. It is, in fact, the guide by which the individual reaches 
his decisions and formulates his plans. We first begin with the 
town in which we live, then the state, then the nation; and finally 
extend our operations into the world-at-large. It is this knowl- 
edge, therefore, which is absolutely essential in the organization 
and development of every business enterprise. It is the guide to 
the world's markets. It is the chart for the expansion of all trade. 
No individual today can succeed in any line of endeavor without 
a practical knowledge of the conditions which surround him — the 
various groups of peoples, their customs, habits and needs. 

It may be stated as a fundamental fact that the key to success 
is an adequate knowledge of the world in which we live. With 
this as a starting-point, there is no limitation. It is the service 
of this volume to present the fundamental facts which may be 
utilized by every person in whatever position in life or occupa- 
tion he may be engaged — to give him a practical working knowl- 
edge, upon which he can plan and develop his own work in the 
world. 



INTRODUCTION ix 

SEVEN THOUSAND YEARS OF WORLD DEVELOPMENT 



Lot us observe briefly the progressive steps by which we have 
reached the position in which we find ourselves today. Who built 
the foundations upon which we are living? How were tliose foun- 
dations laid? How long has it taken? Wliat were the experiences 
of those who preceded us? What were the causes of their suc- 
cesses or failures? 

When we consider that the world as it stands today is the work 
of many hundreds of generations of men, wlien we weigh the tre- 
mendous difficulties they met and overcame and the problems that 
confronted each generation, then we begin to realize the amount 
of work that has been put into what we call civilization. 

Seventy centuries ago the world was an unknown quantity. It 
was a mass of raw materials, without plan or purpose as far as 
human knowledge was concerned. During all this time men have 
been laboring daily to penetrate its mysteries, clear up its jungle- 
lands, discover its secret resources, find its rivers, scale and tun- 
nel its mountains, cross its bays and gulfs and oceans. And yet, 
locked within this old earth were all the riches of the ages, 
unfathomable wealth which has been revealed slowly by hard, 
intelligent effort, until today it stands revealed as inexhaustible, 
its possibilities increasing with each year. One hundred billions 
of workers have come and gone in this great enterprise of develop- 
ing the earth and constructing the world in which we live and 
work today. What a stupendous task this revelation of the 
world's secrets has been: what a tribute to the diligence, the 
unconquerable faith, the indefatigable energy and industry of 
men; and what a realization of the creative forces behind it — the 
infinite intelligence which constructed it — and keeps it in 
operation. 

The area of the earth is estimated at nearly 107,000,000 square 
miles (as shown in chapters to follow). It has been necessary for 
men to work their way through this vast area, step by step, reveal- 
ing its possibilities, charting its paths, opening up its channels, 
erecting landmarks, felling forests, making the wilderness in- 
habitable and bringing it into utility — until today it is all within 
the reach of the present generation — and at our service. 



X INTRODUCTION 

The beginning of this gigantic enterprise is unknown. It 
starts somewhere in remote antiquity, when man was in the 
Paleolithic age. The theories of his slow process of material evo- 
lution is a matter of investigation by anthropologists and ethnolo- 
gists, while his higher spiritual creation and unfoldment is defined 
by theologians and metaphysicians. It remains for the geographer 
to trace the exploration and discovery of the world's surface, and 
for the historian to follow the events that have occurred while the 
human family has been leaving written records of the progress 
of mankind since civilization was in its infancy. 



RAPID SURVEY OF THREE EPOCHS OF 
HUMAN PROGRESS 

This record, as has been stated, is generally divided into 
epochs : First Epoch — Ancient ; Second Epoch— Mediaeval ; Third 
Epoch — Modern; Fourth Epoch, the new era beginning with the 
World War. (1) Ancient History begins about 5000 B.C., with 
the first appearance of historic records, leading up to the birth 
of Christ, and ending with the fall of the Western Roman Empire 
476 A.D. (2) Mediaeval History, or the history of the Middle 
Ages, extends from the fall of Rome 476 A.D. to the Discovery of 
America in 1492. (3) Modern History embraces the period from 
the Discovery of America, 1492, to the close of the World War, 
1919. These are foundations upon which we are now building 
the New Age — the Fourth Epoch with its proposed League of 
Nations. 

Man's origin was in the east. He has since worked continually 
westward, until he has encircled the globe, and dominates the 
lands from pole to pole ; and the most western and newest nations 
have risen highest in the scale of civilization. 

The dawn of what we know as civilization came from the old 
Babylonian, Chaldean, Assyrian and Egyptian empires with their 
past glory. Here, in its setting of Oriental grandeur, the world's 
drama lifted its curtain, revealing the rise of humble peoples into 
powerful nations; to reign supreme until luxury, w^ealth and 
leisure undermined the foundations of society; finally to fall into 
decadence and collapse. Here, in the beginning of recorded 



INTRODUCTION xl, 

events, we find mankind emerging from tribes into races and 
nations. Out of the dimness of the Stone Age, we see him awak- 
ened by moral and spiritual intelligence, feeling the necessity of 
social and economic organization, and formulating communities of 
common interest for the purpose of mutual protection. This is 
the first and fundamental purpose of all Government. 

The peoples of all nations today, and especially their states- 
men and lawmakers, may well read the handwriting on the wall 
in the records of those who went before us, who struggled with 
the same problems of wealth and poverty, capital and lal)or, 
autocracy and democracy. The value of knowledge is in its human 
experience, in its demonstration of the causes and effects of the 
success or failure of individuals and of nations. 



''BIRD'S EYE VIEW" OF THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT 

OF CIVILIZATION 

First Epoch (5000 B.C.-476 A.D.). On the Western Coast 
of Asia we find the first of the great civilizations : Babylonia, a 
powerful Semitic nation, ''builders of cities, the possessors of a 
great literature in clay, learned in mathematics and the heavens." 
Babylonians were followed by Assyrians on the north, who estab- 
lished a world empire in their little domain, only to make way 
for Chaldea, "in turn to be succeeded by a Neo-Babylonian king- 
dom, in turn to be succeeded by Persia," and the empire of Alex- 
ander and Greece, finally to pass on to Rome, whither "all roads 
lead." Ancient Egypt, with its Memphis and its Thebes; with its 
pyramids and its science; with its agriculture and its commerce 
— what a mighty human force it exerted! 

We cannot linger in this First Epoch, except to view the strug- 
gles of these early empires, the difficulty which mankind has 
always experienced in establishing and maintaining a fixed form 
of government. The Assyrians, the Phoenicians and the Hebrews, 
all wise and powerful peoples, came and went the way of their 
predecessors. For the first time in history (1125 B.C.) we have 
great states in relation of war and peace with one another. This 
is the beginning of diplomacy and world politics. In this epoch 
many nations rose and fell, their places being taken by more 



xii INTRODUCTION 

advanced states. Strong men strove — statesmen, soldiers, scien- 
tists, holy men; and their impress has been left upon human 
society for all time. 

Second Epoch (476 A.D.-1492 A.D.). In this rapid survey 
of the progress of mankind, we can linger but a moment to wit- 
ness the steady Western pilgrimage. Slowly, man has pushed 
forward toward the setting sun — blazing a new path and erecting 
great cities to mark his progress. 

The Byzantine empire, in its mediaeval splendor, existed for a 
thousand years. New races and new nations came into existence 
and joined the westward movement. The Romans and Teutons, 
Franks, Burgundians and Goths; the English, Saxons and Celts; 
the Normans and Jutes. 

Great peoples and nations arose: Italy and France and Spain; 
England and Germany, Poland and Russia. We see the founda- 
tions laid for the Holy Roman Empire; we witness the Mongol 
invasions ; we go on the Crusades. These are the days of knight- 
hood, chivalry, feudalism, the Truce of God, with the struggle 
between Church and State. 

It was an epoch too, of strong men. It was a time of great 
geographical and astronomical discoveries. The invention of 
gunpowder and the printing press hastened the transition from 
the Middle Ages to modern times. And then came the greatest 
event in all the geographical discoveries of men — the Discovery 
of a New World — America — and the beginning of a new epoch. 

Third Epoch (1492-1919 A.D.). The greatest enterprise in 
the achievements of men, as we have noted, is the Discovery of 
America — the event which created a new or Third Epoch for the 
world's progress. This — the age of Great Discoveries, great 
inventions which were to revolutionize the world, furnish great 
achievements, and mark the beginning of the emancipation of the 
world through the development of political liberty and Democracy. 

It is necessary at this time merely to indicate the general trend 
of conditions in Europe, the establishment of the nations, their 
wars and revolutions, their political, economic and intellectual 
advancement through many crises and bloody struggles. There 
was the Franco-Spanish struggle for supremacy and the invasions 
of Italy; the Spanish ascendancy in Western Europe; the Thirty 
Years' War and the decline of Spain; the French Ascendancy; 



INTRODUCTION xiii 

the House of Romanoff on the Russian throne; the Ottoman Em- 
pire; the trials of Prussia and the age of Frederick tlie Great; the 
French revolutions; the rise of the British Empire; the steady 
development of the German Empire — all gathering in momentous 
rivalry until it reached its climax with Germany's attempt to 
dominate Europe in the World War, which in itself was to create 
a new epoch. 

The rise of the American race to a position of world leader- 
ship, is the most important event in the Third P]poch. The settle- 
ment of America; its colonization by the Spanish, French, Dutch 
and English ; the establishment of new nations in North and South 
America, until the Western Hemisphere has become the seat of 
the world's most advanced progress, — these are a part of our 
everyday knowledge. Today the American republics and the 
great Dominion of Canada hold the foremost position in world 
progress. 

IMPORTANT FACTS REGARDING WORLD WAR 

(1914-1918) 

In concluding this Introduction, with its rapid glance at the 
movement of human progress, it is interesting to note a few facts 
regarding the World War. This war, which brought America 
into supremacy as a world power, was the result of cumulative 
rivalries of European nations. It was caused directly by tlie 
attempt of the German Empire to dominate and control the 
world's trade. It involved thirty nations and engaged most of 
the population of the world, either directly or indirectly; more 
than thirty million soldiers were mobilized throughout the various 
parts of the world. Nearly 10,000,000 men were killed. The total 
cost is estimated at $186,000,000,000. 

The United States was forced to enter the war (Apri l (1, 19V 
in defense of its rights against German attacks, in derense of 
civilization, and in defense of the liberties of the peoples of the 
world against the attacks and ambitions of German military 
autocracy. It was America's entrance into the War with the Allies 
which caused the turning point, resulting in the collapse of Ger- 
many, and the surrender of the Central Powers (November 11, 
1918) under armistice. 



f 



xiv INTRODUCTION 

The United States mobilized an army of 4,800,000 men. Of 
the 54,000,000 males in the United States population, 26,000,000 
were registered for military service. During the nineteen months 
in which we were engaged in the war, we sent 2,084,000 men to 
France; of these 1,390,000 fought in battles at the front. The 
war cost of the United States was about $22,000,000,000. 



RESITLTS OF THE WORLD WAR— GEOGRAPHICAL 
AND GOVERNMENTAL 

The world, as we have stated, is being remade. New nations 
have been born, powerful empires have fallen, new racial groups 
have been organized; new rulers, new laws, new boundaries have 
come into existence. The transformation which has been wrought 
by the birth of this new epoch in human history requires the 
remaking of all the maps and geographies throughout the world. 
A definite appraisal of these important changes is as follows: — 

Governments in Ihese countries have been overthrown: Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece. 

New nations have come into existence as Political Powers: 
Czecho-slovakia, Jugo-slavia, Poland, Esthonia, Finland, Hejaz, 
Latvia, Lithuania. 

The status of many lands has required re-adjustment, and 
important governmental changes have occurred in many others. 

Important Political Changes. — Three of the six countries in 
which the Governments were overthrown in the World War have 
changed from a monarchical to a non-monarchical regime — Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary and Russia. Greece and Bulgaria at the 
close of the war remained tottering kingdoms, and the Sultan of 
Turkey still clung to his shadowy suzerainty. Five of the coun- 
tries that sprung into being as a result of the war are republics: 
Czecho-slovakia, Finland, Esthonia, Latvia and Poland. Two are 
monarchies with republican tendencies : Jugo-slavia and Hejaz. 

In the other countries where the war brought sweeping changes 
of Government two remained republics: China and Portugal; 
Luxemburg remained a monarchy; Montenegro and Serbia disap- 
pear as independent nations and, according to present indications, 
will become part of the new Jugo-slavia. 



INTRODUCTION xv 

Germany, in tlie moment of lier downfall as an empire, adopted 
a republican form of government, with pronounced socialistic 
tendencies, on November 17, 1918, immediately following the 
armistice and the flight of Emperor Wilhelm II to Holland. It is 
interesting to note the swing of the pendulum from the worst mili- 
tary despotism of modern times: following the abdication and. 
exile of the Emperor, the once-powerful German empire fell into 
the hands of a saddler — Friedrich Ebert, of the working class, 
who took over the sliattered monarchy from Prince Max of Baden, 
the last Imperial Chancellor. The country was thrown into revo- 
lution, passing through a reign of anarchy, in which the ''saddler" 
held his country together, sending his representatives to Ver- 
sailles to sign the treaty w^hich reconstructs the world. 

Similar revolutionary political changes had taken place in 
Russia witli the fall of the House of Romanoffs, the establishment 
of a republic, the assassination of the czar and his family, with 
the uprising of the political forces known as the Bolsheviki under 
a reign of terror. The collapse of the Austrian Empire followed, 
and all the tottering governments of the vanquished Central 
Powers were thrown into revolution. From these ruins during 
the next generation a new world must be created. 

The following chapters will be devoted to geographic and 
scientific information regarding the wnirld today and its peoples, 
with a brief record of their knowledge and achievements. 



International Geographical History 
OF THE World 

The World Flat-Globe and International Geographical History 
(two parts) comprise a new Twentieth Century system of geo- 
graphical review and reference. The Globe gives a full presenta- 
tion of the earth's surface in the proper relations of continents 
and oceans, land relief, nations, and the world's commercial 
routes. The International Geographical History gives an inter- 
esting and complete description and explanation of the earth's 
surface, from the view-points of Physical and Economic Geog- 
raphy, and the history of the ages as shown in the political sub- 
divisions of the earth. This Globe and Geographical History 
combined give to the reader a correct and substantial geographical 
education of permanent value. Through it he may acquire at once 
sound scholarship, and material aid in practical industrial and 
commercial problems. 

Geography treats of the earth as the home of man. Amid what 
seas, land forms, soils, climatic conditions, varieties of animal and 
vegetable life and other phenomena of nature does man live and 
toil? How does each of them affect man and his enterprises? 
How does he utilize, modify, improve or subdue them? The 
purpose of the study of geography is to explain these natural 
phenomena, and to answer the question how they have made man 
what he is. 

One cannot read history or current news aright, nor under- 
stand the marvels of man's modern achievements, unless familiar 
with geography. First of all one must know the relations of the 
various features of the earth's surface. An idea of the distribu- 
tion of land and water, continents, countries, and islands over the 
entire surface of the earth is best conveyed l)y means of a globe. It 
is only on the spherical surface of a globe, or by means of a projec- 
tion on a flat surface such as that of the Flat-Globe, that the 

1 



2 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP THE WORLD 

various divisions, political and natural, can be shown approxi- 
mately in their proper proportion and relation to one another 
throughout the whole extent of the world. 

An old-style ball globe is very expensive and cumbersome, and 
few can afford such a luxury. The World Plat-Globe has there- 
fore been devised to bring within the reach of all a true con- 
ception of the earth's surface. It has practically all the merits 
of a ball globe and many advantages the spherical globe does not 
possess, while the cost is comparatively insignificant. 

It is the aim in this Geographical History to give a compre- 
hensive description of the earth from every point of view in con- 
nection with the Plat-Globe. 

The World Flat-Globe is circular in form, perfectly flat, 
twenty-eight inches in diameter, and hangs against the wall. Each 
side contains a complete hemisphere— on one side the Western 
and on the opposite side the Eastern Hemisphere. By bringing 
the lines of latitude and longitude exactly opposite one another, 
as we do in printing, one may follow the entire surface of the 
earth, simply turning the Globe over w^hen going from one 
hemisphere or side to the other. 

A view of the world in its various aspects is presented in these 
pages, with pertinent references here and there to the Plat-Globe 
and the best methods of using it. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

Physical Geography explains the development of the earth's 
surface of today, tracing its history through remote ages of the 
past. Man came upon the earth at a particular stage in its his- 
tory. He finds the sphere composed broadly of three great units 
—a solid mass, on which he lives, a partial envelope of water, 
and a complete envelope of gaseous atmosphere. 

The earth's surface is constantly changing, under the influence 
of various agents from within and without, acting upon the rocks 
of the solid earth. Hence w^e must study the earth materials, 
the agents at work upon them, and the resulting forms 
produced. 

In the course of this study, it is best to gain first a knowledge 
of the characteristics of the Earth as a Whole, and its relations 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 3 

to its surroundings in the heavens ; next to study the Lands, then 
the Atmosphere, the Oceans, and finally the effects of all these 
upon Life on the Earth. 

THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

A Family of Worlds. — The Earth is one of a number of planets 
that form our solar system, and this system is but one of many in 
celestial space. Our i)lanets revolve around the sun, and derive 
their light and most of their heat from it. Of the known planets. 
Mercury and Venus are nearer the sun than we are, but Mars, Ju- 
piter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, in order, are further away 
from it. The earth is the fifth in size, being larger than Venus, 
Mars and Mercury. Outside the orbit of Mars are the minor 
planets or asteroids, of which over 700 have thus far been dis- 
covered. Around most, at least, of the planets revolve other 
smaller worlds, satellites, such as our moon. 

The Earth in Space. — The earth, together with the sun and the 
other planets, is moving through space with a great but undeter- 
mined velocity. It also revolves around the sun, and, at the same 
time is spinning on its own axis. The air does not impede these 
motions because it is as much a part of the earth as is the rock 
envelope itself. The motions of the earth will continue until such 
power is exerted to overcome them as was imparted to produce 
them. 

Shape, Size and Density. — Centuries ago it was shown that the 
earth is not flat l)ut round ; next that it was round in all directions, 
very much like a sphere. Now we know that its shape is approxi- 
mately that of a slightly flattened sphere, whose polar diameter 
is shortened about 13.25 miles at either end, or 2G.50 miles alto- 
gether. Such a body is called an oblate sjiheroid. The nearly 
spherical shajje is shown in a number of ways — by the disap- 
pearance of objects on the hoiizon in all directions, by changes 
in the position of stars as we go north or south, the shape of the 
earth's shadow on the moon during an eclipse. 

We are wont to think of the world as enormous, but it is really 
one of the smaller heavenly bodies. The universe is so vast that 
our thoughts cannot grasp its dimensions. We know at least that 
the solar system occupies only a minute part of space, and we 



4 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

need not seek outside this system for proof of the comparative 
insignificance of our dwelling-place. Our satellite, the moon, is 
circling around the earth at a distance of 238,840 miles. Let us 
imagine the earth and its satellite placed within the sun, the earth 
at its center, wdth the moon moving around the earth at its pres- 
ent distance; the sun would still extend nearly 200,000 miles 
beyond the moon at all points. The diameter of the sun is over 
109 times that of the earth. 

Many of the stars are larger than the sun. All the stars are 
far-away suns, and the star that is nearest to us is so remote that, 
while it takes only eight minutes for a ray of light to travel nearly 
92,800,000 miles between the sun and the earth, it requires about 
three and a half years for the ray to reach us from the nearest 
star. Astronomers have calculated the distance of the nearest 
stars from us, but their figures are expressed in so many hun- 
dreds of millions of miles that they convey no definite idea to our 
minds. A common way of stating star distance is to say that is 
a certain number of light-years away. 

The earth has a polar diameter of 7,899.74 miles, and a polar 
circumference of 24,859.76 miles ; an equatorial diameter of 
7,926.61 miles, and an equatorial circumference of nearly 24,902 
miles. The area of the spheroid is 196,971,894 square miles, or 
about sixty-five times that of the United States exclusive of 
Alaska. Of this great total, 27.8 per cent., or 54,758,186 square 
miles are land, and the remainder, about 144,323,708 square miles, 
is water. 

At the surface of the earth, the rocks average 2.56 times as 
heavy as water, or as we saj^, have a density of 2.56 ; but the earth 
as a whole weighs more than it should if its density were the 
same throughout, from which we compute that the mean density 
of the earth is 5.576. Toward the center, the density of the earth's 
matter must be very high, to produce the general average just 
stated. 

Other planets have densities varying from .7 to 5.05. That of 
the sun is 1.415. 

The Earth's Parts. — The earth is often said to have a ''crust"; 
but it is solid clear to the center, intenselv hot and under great 
pressure there, and in its behavior as a globe is almost as rigid 
as steel. The oceanic waters and the atmosphere, fluid though 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 5 

they be, act as a part of the earth in its movements in 
space. 

How the Earth Grew. — The earth was not always as it is now. 
It has had its yesterdays, it looks forward to tomorrows. It had 
a beginning, it will have an end. 

For many years the origin of the earth was accounted for by 
what was perhaps the most beautiful scientific theory ever 
invented — the Nebular Hypothesis. According to it the solar 
system was at first a vast rotating spheroid of intensely hot gas, 
whose diameter was greater than that of the orbit of Neptune, 
our most distant planet. Gradually parts of this gas, along its 
equator, became separated from the parent body by the shrinking 
of the latter, making a ring like Saturn's. This ring eventually 
broke up into clusters which were later to be planets. The 
clusters continued a revolving motion about the parent, inherited 
from the time when they were parts of the ring. They also 
rotated on an axis of their own, and were able to form rings in 
their turn. These rings, b}^ repeating the processes described, 
became satellites like the moon. Repetition of the stages outlined 
above finally gave the planets, satellites and asteroids we know, 
and left our sun as a center of revolution for the whole flock of 
spheres. 

The earth, one of these gaseous spheres, gradually cooled and 
contracted, becoming first liquid, then gradually solid. Atmos- 
phere and an oceanic envelope were left behind in gaseous and 
liquid form respectively. Finally, when the temperature at the 
earth's surface was not much higher than now, all the activities 
of land and sea and air were in full operation ; and low forms of 
life appeared, from which by evolution all the plants and ani- 
mals of today have arisen. 

Now, this wonderful theory was based upon the observations 
of more than a century ago, when telescopes were crude and 
weak, and when our knowledge of physics and of chemistry was 
primitive. Of late years there has arisen another explanation, 
which, while as much a theory as the earlier, still follows more 
closely the laws of nature now known, arid explains nuich in the 
earth's history and present state that the other did not. It is 
called the Planetessimal Hypothesis, and in every feature it is the 
opposite of the Nebular Theory. 



6 OEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD ' 

In the sky are many clusters of light-gi\dng bodies called 
Nebulae, and most of them have a spiral form, showing a head 
and two spiral tails. These tails are lighter in certain spots. The 
theory is that our planets represent dense spots in the tail of 
such a nebula, the sun being the head. Gradually the particles 
of earth matter, or planetessimals, near enough to one of these 
knots to be attracted, would fall in toward it, and thus from a 
small beginning an earth would grow. In the end most of the 
loose star-dust in our part of the sky has thus been used up, and 
we have only a few meteors now and then to remind us of our 
early ages. 

Thus the earth grew from small to larger; starting cold or 
nearly so, it became hot within by compression as it grew. "Water 
and gases for its two envelopes were gradually pressed out of 
the rock to the surface; and life appeared, not when it became 
cool enough, but when the atmosphere gained proper volume and 
composition. It is a wonderful theory, even if it may require 
change as our knowledge increases. 

Rotation and its Effects. — While the earth is moving forward 
in its path through space, it is turning on an axis, completing its 
rotation in about twenty-four hours. The sun therefore is at any 
moment rising on one part of its surface and setting on another 
part. So great is the speed of this rotation, more than one thou- 
sand miles an hour at the equator, that we should be thrown off 
into space were it not that the earth's attraction, or gravity, 
is more powerful than the tendency to fly off, or centrifugal 
force. 

The rotation of the earth on its axis causes the succession of 
day and night. One half the earth always faces the sun; the other 
half is turned away from it; Imt the rotation is constantly 
bringing every part in succession into the light. Even at 
night the earth receives sunlight that is reflected from the^ 
moon. 1 

The Earth's Revolution. — Every particle of matter in the uni- 
verse tries to draw to itself every other particle. This is called 
the attraction of gravitation. Some force impelled the earth to 
move in a straight line, but the force of gravitation is exerted at 
the same time to draw it to the sun; and the two forces, con- 
tmually exerted on the earth, are so adjusted that instead of! 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 7 

shooting off into space or falling- into the sun, the earth revolves 
around the sun in a nearly circular orbit; and the period we call 
a year is merely the time in which the earth makes a complete 
revolution around the sun. 

The earth moves in its orbit at the rate of 68,000 miles an 
hour, or 600,000,000 miles every year in its journey around the 
sun. The direction both of the revolution and of the rotation of 
the earth is from west to east. 

If propulsion and gravity were exactly balanced, the earth's 
orbit would be a circle; but as they are not, the real form of the 
orbit is an ellipse. At one part of its course, therefore, the earth 
is nearer to the sun than at another, its average distance being 
92,800,000 miles and the variation of distance about 3,000,000 
miles. 

Cardinal Points. — Relative position on the earth is based on 
the direction of the earth's axis, the imaginary line on which it 
spins. The axis points very nearly to a star known as the 
north star (Arcturus). The ends of the axis are its poles, and 
the star toward which the axis points is called also the polar 
star. 

From any part of the earth the direction toward the pole 
nearest the north star is north; toward the opposite or south 
pole the direction is south. Toward sunrise the direction is 
easterly; toward sunset it is westerly. Or, looking northward, 
east is on the right, west on the left. 

Direction. — We base all our description of direction upon 
these cardinal points. Thus we speak of northeast, southeast, 
southwest, northwest. Sailors have for a very long time divided 
the direction-circle from north clockwise to south and around to 
north again into thirty-two "points" of equal angular deviation. 
Most people, however, prefer the plan that divndes the circle into 
360 degrees, each composed of sixty minutes and each minute 
of sixty seconds. By this means, direction can be very accurately 
measured. 

Terrestrial Magnetism and Compass Direction. — The earth is 
a "lodestone," like a magnetized bar of steel, and has polarity — 
that is, different parts of the earth behave differently toward 
the mysterious force in nature which causes one end of the com- 
pass needle to point more or less toward the north in most parts 



8 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

of the world. It was known centuries ago that in most places 
the magnetic needle does not point to the true north, but is 
deflected to the east or to the west of it. This deflection is called 
magnetic declination, and the amount of the declination for all 
parts of the world varies and must be redetermined from time to 
time. 

"When the magnetic needle is hung on a horizontal axis the 
north end tends to point downward toward the earth in the north- 
ern hemisphere, and to point upward away from the earth in the 
southern. This is called the magnetic dip, or inclination. In 
1831 the British polar explorer, James C. Ross, discovered a 
point on the west coast of Boothia, in the American Arctic 
regions, where the dip needle pointed almost exactly to the center 
of the earth. This spot is the north magnetic pole, and varies 
slightly in position, moving sometimes east and sometimes west. 
The position of the south magnetic pole has not been exactly 
determined. Many nations are now making investigations to 
increase our knowledge of the causes and results of the earth's 
magnetic condition, and in this work the United States is taking 
a leading part. 

Mariners steer largely by compass, and exploration by land 
and sea depends upon it; but compass directions must be con- 
stantly corrected to true north by observations on the north star 
or some other reliable heavenly body. 

Latitude. — An imaginary line may be thought of as drawn 
around the earth midway between the poles, and this circular line 
would bound a plane at right angles to the axis and would divide 
the earth into two equal parts — a Northern Hemisphere and a 
Southern Hemisphere. We call this line the Equator, and its 
position marks zero latitude. Other lines may be imagined 
drawn around the earth but through the poles, and these would 
be ellipses because the polar diameter is shorter than the equa- 
torial. If these ellipses are cut by lines making definite angles 
with the equatorial plane, say at intervals of five degrees, the 
lines will intersect the earth's surface much as a plumb-bob hangs, 
vertically. The effect of these intersections is to give a series of 
imaginary circles around the earth parallel to and smaller than 
the equator, and appropriately called Parallels of Latitude. But 
because of the elliptical shape of the earth's polar cross-section. 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 9 

these parallels are not the same distance apart. As one goes 
from the equator to the pole, the degree-length l)ecomes somewhat 
greater, as is shown in a tal)le below (p. 10). The variation is so 
slight on either side of G9 miles, however, that it is customary to 
say in a general way that a degree of latitude is 69 statute miles 
long. 

Each degree is of course divisible into minutes and seconds, 
and is designated as being north or south of the equator. 
Thus Columl)ia, South Carolina, is in 34 degrees north latitude, 
while Cape Towu, South Africa, . is in 34 degrees south 
latitude. 

Longitude. — The imaginary lines passing through the poles, 
referred to above, are called ^leridians. Their possible number 
is infinite, but we find it convenient to regard them as dividing 
the equator and latitude circles into degrees, minutes and sec- 
onds, and to regard any such line running from pole to pole as a 
single meridian. Obviously, since these point everywhere toward 
the poles, their direction is north and south. The parallels of 
latitude intersect them at right angles, their direction being east 
and west. 

These imaginary lines on the earth become real lines on globes 
and maps, on the latter curved or straight according to the nature 
of the map projection. On the Flat-Globe, which is so constructed 
as to give the most correct representation possible of direction, 
distance and area, the parallels and meridians are curved, and lie 
ten degrees apart. 

The length of degrees of longitude decreases from 69.172 
statute miles at the equator to zero at the poles. The statute mile 
is 5,280 feet long. The nautical mile, or "knot," is 1/60 of a 
latitude degree at the equator, and is 6080.27 feet long. It is use- 
ful chiefly in navigation. Distances are usually measured on maps 
and globes in statute miles, unless nautical miles are specified. 
In sailing, whether reckoning distance or speed, nautical miles 
are more commonly employed. 

The following table illustrates the length of a degree of lati- 
tude, and of longitude for certain latitudes from equator to poles. 
It will be noticed that degrees of latitude are measured on 
meridians and those of longitude are measured on parallels. 



10 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Length of Length of 

Latitude Latitude Degree Longitude Degree 

(miles) (miles) 

68.704 69.172 

10 68.725 68.129 

20 68.786 65.026 

30 68.879 59.956 

40 68.993 53.063 

45 69.054 48.995 

50 69.115 44.552 

60 69.230 34.674 

70 69.324 23.729 

80 69.386 12.051 

90 69.407 0.000 

It is convenient to be able to refer to the location of places 
on east-west lines, that is by longitude, by reference to some fixed 
meridian; just as we refer to latitude as north or south of the 
equator. Such an arbitrarily chosen line is called the prime 
meridian. At times in the past both Paris and Washington have 
been used as points of departure by the French and Americans; 
but the civilized world today accepts the Royal Astronomical 
Observatory in Greenwich, England, as the point of departure, 
and the meridian passing through it is called zero longitude. 
East of this to a point half-way around the world is east longi- 
tude, and westward for an equal distance is west longitude. The 
continuation of zero longitude through the poles and along the 
other side of the world in a direction exactly opposite the former 
line gives the meridian of 180 degrees. Thus, the Flat-Globe 
shows that Colombo, Ceylon, is in longitude 80° east, and that 
Charleston, South Carolina, is in longitude 80° west from Green- 
wich. For convenience the Flat-Globe is divided into an Eastern 
and a Western Hemisphere along the meridians 20° W and 
160° E. 

Longitude and Time. — As the rotation of the earth on its axis 
causes day and night according as the various parts of its surface 
are turned toward the sun or away from it, we measure time by 
this rotation. While it is not strictly correct to say that the earth 
makes a complete rotation in 24 hours, the idea is serviceable for 
all practical purposes. It then follows that, as time is measured 
by the relation of the earth's surface to the sun, there must be 
at any instant a difference in clock time of one hour for every 
15° of longitude (1/24 of 360°). Thus, when it is noon at Green- 
wich it is 1 P.M. at all points in longitude 15° east, and 11 A.M. 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 11 

at all points in longitude 15° west. The application of this to 
standard time ))elts will be explained later (p. 136). 

The International Date Line. — This line marks the change of 
day in circumnavigating the earth east or west. By common 
consent of the leading nations, it is placed in the Pacific; for a 
great part of its extent it coincides with the 180th meridian. 
When ships ''cross the line," they add a day to their calendar if 
they are going west, and subtract a day if they are going east. 
Why? The date line is placed in the Pacific, far from most lands, 
because the change is most conveniently made where traffic is not 
likely to be disturbed by a confusion of dates. As a matter of 
fact, the oljservance of the date line is theoretical rather than 
actual, and sailing masters change time, not at the line, but most 
commonly at the nearest port of call. The line as drawn on the 
Flat-Globe represents the official interpretation of the United 
States Government at present. 

Inclination of the Earth's Axis, and its Effects. — The inclina- 
tion of the earth's axis to the plane in which it revolves around 
the sun causes changes in the length of days and nights, and the 
alternation of seasons. If the axis of the earth were perpen- 
dicular to its orbit, day and night would be equal in length all 
the year. But the axis is inclined 23 M: degrees from the perpen- 
dicular, so that it points nearly to the pole star. Twice a year, 
March 21st and September 23d, the earth reaches a position in 
its orbit so that the sun is exactly vertical over the equator. Then 
the line between the dark and the sunlit halves of the globe, divid- 
ing day and night, passes through the poles, and day and night 
are each twelve hours long throughout the world. On these days 
the sun rises due east and sets due west. March 21st is called 
the Spring or Vernal Equinox, and September 23d the Autumnal 
Equinox. 

After the spring equinox the north i)ole is inclined more and 
more toward the sun until June 21st, the date of the Summer 
Solstice, when the inclination reaches 2314 degrees. The days in 
the northern hemisphere lengthen throughout that time, as more 
of this portion of the earth is exposed to sunlight; and at midday 
the sun is higher in the heavens. During this time the days are 
longer also as one goes northward, until within the Arctic Circle 
the sun does not set at midsummer, and at the north pole the 



12 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

day is six months long. At the same time the south pole, turned 
away from the sun, has a night of half a year. 

The longest days of the temperate zones vary from a little more 
than thirteen hours upward. They vary from fifteen to eighteen 
hours in the regions of densest population. The long summer 
days of the northern United States and middle Europe add very 
greatly to the food-producing power of those regions. 

After June 21st the axis l)ecomes less inclined, and the days 
in the northern hemisphere shorten gradually. When the autum- 
nal equinox is passed, the days are shorter than the nights, for 
the north pole is now turned away from the sun. These changes 
progress until December 22nd, the date of the V/inter Solstice, 
when the north pole is inclined 23^/4 degrees away from the sun, 
and the northern hemisphere has its shortest day. This is also 
the midnight of the six months' night at the north pole, and the 
south pole is enjoying the midday of its six months' day. 

During one-quarter of the year the northern hemisphere 
receives far more sunshine than the southern hemisphere. It is 
then the summer season of the northern half, and the winter of 
the southern half of the world. During three other months the 
seasons are reversed; it is winter in the northern and summer 
in the southern hemisphere. Between these two seasons lie two 
others, spring and autumn, when both hemispheres receive about 
the same amount of heat. But in one hemisphere the heat is 
increasing, in the other it is diminishing; and each hemisphere 
has spring while the other is passing through autumn. In sum- 
mer the high temperature of the torrid zone advances to middle 
latitudes and the cold of the polar regions becomes less severe; 
but in winter the cold of the polar regions is intense, low tem- 
peratures advance through middle latitudes, and the heat on the 
edge of the torrid zone is temperate. The half of the earth over 
which the winter season reigns receives the rays of the sun more 
slantingly; they are scattered over a larger surface, and conse- 
quently their heating power is less intense. 

The earth is so small that it receives only a little of the sun's 
light and heat — less than one part in two billion — but it is this 
small proportion that makes life possible on the earth. 

The Seasons and Agriculture.— The two great farming regions 
are in the north and south temperate zones. When it is summer 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 13 

in one of these zones it is winter in the other. This is a kind 
provision of nature, for by means of it the raisino- of food and 
vegetable fibers, the fruits and the grasses rec^uired by man and 
the domestic animals never ceases. It is going on in some parts 
of the world all the time, the season of rest in one hemisphere 
being the season of growth in the other. For several months our 
farm lands are frozen to a depth of several inches or more; but 
in those same months the farmers of Argentina, Cape Colony, 
Australia and New Zealand are cutting their wheat, turning 
grass into hay, and gathering orchard fruits. The wheat harvest 
is in progress somewhere every month in the year. Even in 
the temperate zones there is much difference in the time during 
which the same crops are gathered. Thus in the southern States, 
vegetables are grown much earlier than in the northern States, 
and the north can draw upon this source of supply during the 
winter and early spring until its own vegetables mature; more- 
over, if the wheat crop of the north temperate zone yields less 
than usual, it is a great blessing to be able to draw upon the 
wheat that is grown in the south temperate zone several months 
later without waiting a whole year for the succeeding northern 
crop to ripen. 

A little after midwinter the fine peaches, grapes, plums and 
other fruits of New Zealand and Cape Colony, carried thousands 
of miles in cold storage, are found in the markets of London and 
New York, while our own vines and fruit trees are still leafless. 
In the torrid zone, food is grown the year around. But in the 
temperate zones, where vegetable food can be grown only a part 
of the year, it is a great advantage to be able to draw upon the 
supplies raised in another zone at another time of year. So the 
ditferences in the growing seasons, togethei- with cheap and rapid 
transportation and refrigeration to preserve jx'rishable products, 
help to bring all nations closer together in business and social 
relations. 

EARTH AND SKV 

Stars and their Motions. — In the sky, besides our planets, there 
are myriads of visible stars, each a sun, and probal)ly many that 
we shall never see, even with the most powerful telescopes. 
More are visible on clear dry nights than when atmospheric 



14 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

moisture dims them; and in the rare air of high altitudes they 
are wonderfully bright, and special groups, such as the Milky 
Way, seem very near. Yet they are so distant that, although they 
must be moving swiftly in different directions, they have not 
changed their apparent position with reference to each other in 
all the centuries since man began to study and to map them. But 
as a whole the heavens — the celestial sphere, as it is called — 
moves so rapidly that from hour to hour one can see a change. 
The stars all appear to move in the same direction and at the 
same rate. This is because of our own rotation, which brings 
stars successively into view above the eastern horizon. Even 
the north star has a slight apparent motion, too small to be 
detected except by careful measurement. 

From very early times the brightest stars have been regarded 
as grouped into units called Constellations, each group receiving 
a name, such as the Great Dipper, Little Dipper, etc. This is a 
convenience for study, but it does not mean that the stars in a 
constellation have any real connection with one another. 

Some of the light spots are found under the telescope to be 
nebulae, or clouds of incandescent star-dust; and it is from such 
a nebula that many scientists believe that our own solar system 
was evolved. 

Comets. — The name is derived from a Greek word, meaning 
long hair, and was doubtless applied to comets on account of the 
hairy appearance of the luminous matter characteristic of them. 
These celestial bodies are distinct from all others, and in some 
respects are not yet well understood. They consist of three parts: 
the nucleus, which, through the telescope, looks like an irregularly 
formed planet; the coma or nebulous light surrounding the 
nucleus, and the tail, a trail of light which on the greater comets 
sometimes extends over a long arc of the heavens. They appear 
to be fragments of nebulous matter. They have orbits the form 
of which, however, is likely to be changed by the attraction of 
the sun or of some planet, and sometimes they have been observed 
to start off on orbits that would never bring them back again to 
human vision. Their number is supposed to be very large, but 
only 30 or 40 visible to the naked eye appear in a centurv. Not 
more than five or six are discovered by the telescope each year. 
Most of them are new ones. A few comets reappear at regular 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 15 

intervals; others, seen but once, never return. Less than twenty 
comets are known to reappear. They revolve around the sun 
in periods varying from three years to more than seventy years. 

Meteors. — Meteors are small dark bodies that move through 
space, most of them, it is believed, being concentrated into groups. 
Not infrequently, when a meteor appears in our atmosphere it 
leaves a trail of light, in popular language it is called a "shooting 
star." These meteors are not stars, however, but bodies that 
become superheated and visible only when they enter our atmos- 
phere. As their average rate of motion is about 25 miles in a 
second, the friction of the air, and its compression in front of 
them, when they dash into it, generates so high a temperature 
that most of them are completely burned up before they reach the 
earth. Some of the larger of these bodies resist the heating so 
far that the unconsumed parts of them reach the earth. These 
are called meteorites, or meteoric stones. Very few meteorites 
have been seen to fall, and there are not a large number in 
museums or private collections whose fall is a matter of personal 
record. No one knows how they came to be shooting through 
space. 

Meteors consist largely of substances found in the earth, 
although some of these substances are rare at the surface. 

Some of them are nearly pure iron and nickel, and others are 
chiefly stony matter with grains of iron. It is believed that they 
are falling into our atmosphere all the time. The incandescent 
shooting stars are visible to the naked eye; the finer dust particles 
are visible by reflected light only. The late Professor Newton, 
of Yale University, estimated that the daily fall of meteors is 
not far from fifteen or twenty million. Professor Rees, of Colum- 
bia University, whites that millions of them travel together in 
the same swarm or group, with plenty of room, as the separate 
bodies are frequently miles apart. The best time to observe them 
is between midnight and the twilight before sunrise. 

The stream of meteorites radiating from the constellation of 
Leo, which was last observed by telescope in 1866, had a breadth 
of not less than 100,000 miles and a length of 300,000 miles. It 
had been observed that the Leonids, as this swarm of meteors 
is called, usually reai)peared every thirty-three years, and they 
were expected again in 1899, but failed to appear, owing doubt- 



16 OEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

less to some unknown effect of planetary action that disturbed 
their motion. The first definite record of the fall of a meteorite 
was in Croatia on May 26, 1751. The ninth record was that of 
the Mazapil (Mexico) meteorite, weighing ten pounds, which fell 
on November 27, 1885. The tenth fall recorded was that of the 
iron-nickel meteorite that fell in Johnson County, Arkansas, on 
March 27, 1886. On March 12, 1898, a meteorite was seen to drop 
into the Gulf of Finland, making a clean-cut hole 30 feet in diam- 
eter through the ice; fragments of it were dredged up in the follow- 
ing year. The largest meteorite in a museum was brought by 
Rear Admiral Peary from near Cape York, Greenland, to the 
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 

Phases of the Moon. — The moon always presents the same face 
to the earth. One might infer that the moon does not turn on 
its axis, but this would be incorrect. As the moon revolves around 
the earth every month, all sides of it would be seen by us during 
this monthly revolution if it did not rotate on its axis. The 
reason why the same face of the moon is always presented to the 
earth is because it turns on its axis exactly as fast as it revolves 
around the earth and in the same direction. The moon makes 
twelve rotations on its axis in a year, while the earth makes a 
complete rotation every day. 

The moon does not always present the same appearance to us, 
and these differences of aspect are called the phases of the moon. 
The fact that now a larger and then a smaller part of the lunar 
face turned toward us is illumined by -the sun is due to the 
moon's position in the heavens. The moon is a dark body which 
we see by reflected sunlight. When the sun is shining fully on the 
far side of the moon, one cannot see the side turned toward us, 
which is dark except for a dull light reflected from the earth. 
Popularly, the moon is supposed to be new when a narrow bright 
border on one edge, which takes the form of a crescent, is visible. 
This phase is called the new moon. As the moon moves along in 
its revolution and completes one-fourth of its journey, the sun 
lights up one-half of the side we see, the other side remaining 
dark. The moon then presents the appearance of a semicircle. 
This is the first quarter. When half the revolution is completed, 
the face we see is opposite the sun, which shines fully upon it. 
This is full moon. During the second half of the revolution, the 



THE EAKTH AS A WHOLE 17 

same phases ai'e repeated in the reverse order, and we have the 
last quarter, and then new moon again. 

Eclipses. — Sometimes the sun is wholly or partly shut out 
from view because the moon passes between the earth and the 
sun. When the whole or a part of the sun is thus hidden, it is 
called an eclipse of the sun. 

At such times the shadow of the moon is cast on a part of the 
earth, and if we are in that shadow we see the eclipse; but although 
the moon has intercepted the rays of the sun which illumine the 
place where we are, millions of other people can see no eclipse 
because they are not in the shadow, and to them no part of the 
sun is shut out of sight. The outline of the eclipsed part of the 
sun is circular, because the moon is a sphere. If the full shadow 
of the moon is cast on the earth, the eclipse is total to all 
observers in any part of the shadow; but it is a partial eclipse 
if only a part of the sun's disk is shut out of sight. 

When the moon is at its greatest distance from the earth the 
point of convergence of its shadow does not reach the earth. In 
such cases the central part of the sun's surface is shut out of 
sight to the observer near the central line, while the outer edge 
of the sun's surface is seen in all its brightness. This is called 
an annular eclipse of the sun. 

In the course of their movements, the earth may come between 
the moon and the sun. If the moon passes through the shadow 
of the earth to such extent that the entire surface is in shadow, 
the eclii)se of the moon is total. The form of the shadow seen 
on the disk of the moon is circular, because the earth, producing 
the shadow, is a sphere. 

Sometimes the object that is temporarily concealed from us by 
the interposition of some other body between it and the earth is 
a star. This is called not an eclipse, but an occultation. The 
term is particularly applied to the passage of a fixed star behind 
the moon. 

Sometimes the sun is concealed to a very small extent by the 
passage of Venus or Mercury across its face; in the same way, 
a bit of Jupiter may be concealed by the passage of one or another 
of his satellites across his disk. The term ** transit" is applied 
to such occurrences. Astronomers are able to foretell the exact 
time of these events; and they have often traveled half around 



18 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

the earth to witness an eclipse of the sun or a transit of Venus, 
in the hope that observation under these circumstances would 
yield facts of scientific value. 

The causes of eclipses are simple when they are understood, 
but they have often thrown millions of persons into a state of 
wild alarm. In ancient Rome it was against the law to speak of 
eclipses as due to natural causes ; and millions of the Chinese still 
believe that eclipses are caused by great dragons that are trying 
to devour the sun and the moon. 



THE LANDS 

GENERAL RELIEF FEATURES 

Land and Water. — The Flat-Globe shows that by far the 
greater part of the land surface of the earth is in the northern 
hemisphere. Most of the land forms three great areas called con- 
tinents. There are also many smaller bodies, called islands. The 
continents actually extend beyond the shore line, in places two 
hundred miles or more. The water-covered part of the continental 
area is called the ** continental shelf." From north polar regions 
the continents radiate southward in two distinct masses — Eurasia 
and the Americas. It is convenient to regard Europe and Asia 
as separate continents, and similarly North and South America. 
Africa, although connected with Asia, is always considered as a 
separate continent also. 

Only one continent, Australia, is in the southern hemisphere, 
but the greater part of South America and parts of Africa and 
Asia extend south of the equator. Of the continents, Europe and 
North America are entirely in the northern hemisphere. It is not 
yet definitely known to what extent Antarctica is a continent, but 
probal)ly we must add it to the other six. 

By far the greater part of the southern hemisphere is covered 
by the sea. For convenience, the sea is divided into smaller areas 
called oceans. The Flat-Globe and the map, p. 71, show the 
relative i)osition of the six great oceans — Arctic, North Atlantic, 
South Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian. In part, 
the oceans are separated by the continents; elsewhere there is 
no land barrier. These oceans altogether occupy about three- 
fourths of the earth's surface. 

The earth's surface may be considered as wrinkled into great 
waves — the continents occupy these; and between the waves lie 
vast troughs, filled to overflowing by the oceans. On the waves 
are innumerable ripples. These are the mountains and plateaus. 
These continental arches or platforms, and the ocean basins, are 

19 



20 GEOaRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

called relief features of the first order. All others are of minor 
importance. If we add the altitude of the highest mountain and 
the depth of the deepest parts of the ocean, we find that the total 
unevenness of the earth is nearly twelve miles. How little this is 
may be seen when one considers that it represents but 1/330 of 
the earth's radius. The wrinkles on a rough-skin orange are pro- 
portionally far greater. 

The Continents. — The term ''continent" is loosely used. By 
some geographers it is applied to the three great land 
masses, the eastern or Asian, the Avestern or American, and the 
Australian continent. By others the grand divisions, Europe, 
Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Australia are 
called continents; and this is the more popular usage. The 
boundary between Europe and Asia is variously drawn; on the 
Flat-Globe it is the boundary established by the late Imperial 
Russian government. 

A very important feature of the continents is the continental 
shelf noted in a previous paragraph. Most of the great ports of 
the world are situated where the continental shelf is narrow and 
the water next the shore is deep. It is the seat also of the world's 
chief fisheries. 

At the contact of the continents with the sea are many capes, 
peninsulas, and isthmuses. Almost any angle or jutting land 
along the coast which affects commerce is a cape. In regions 
where there is a considerable commerce, many capes and head- 
lands are surmounted by lighthouses. The character of penin- 
sulas is shown on the Flat-Globe. Such peninsulas as Jutland, 
Cape Cod, and Corinth are obstructions to commerce and canals 
have been constructed across them. The Isthmus of Panama is 
a narrow neck of land which joins South America to North 
America and the Isthmus of Suez joins Africa to Asia. In each 
case a ship canal pierces the obstruction, thereby saving from 
7,000 to 10,000 miles of sailing. 

Surface of the Continents.— The surface of each continent is 
diversified by mountains, plateaus, and plains, with their rivers 
and lakes, forests and prairies. Each continent also contains at 
least one great highland region. The great highland of the 
American continents stretches north and south a distance of 
nearly 10,000 miles; that of Europe and Asia extends about the 



THE LANDS 21 

same distance from northeast to southwest. The chief highlands 
of Africa and Australia are on the eastern side. These vast high- 
lands contain most of the great mountain ranges and high 
plateaus of the world. The long slopes of the world face the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

The coast lines of North America, Europe, and Asia are deeply 
indented and possess a large number of harbors. South America, 
Africa, and Australia have more regular coast lines and fewer 
good harbors. The existence of so many good harbors on the 
Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America affords one explana- 
tion of the very extensive commerce between them. The gentle 
slopes of fertile lands account for their dense population. 

The surfaces of the continents are not rigid and fixed; on the 
contrary very slow changes in land are constantly taking place. 
These changes are more easily noticed along the coasts than else- 
where. Thus, a considerable part of the Atlantic coast of the 
United States has been sinking within very recent geological 
times. This movement has made estuaries at many of the river 
mouths; and the old mouth of Hudson River is now many miles 
seaward. Most of the ports of the Atlantic coast of the United 
States are situated on submerged river mouths. Some other 
coasts. In part because of recent elevation, have few harbors. 
This is true of portions of the Pacific coast of both North and 
South America. 

Islands. — The islands of the earth are conveniently classified 
as continental and oceanic. The continental islands are situated 
near the continents and may be considered a part of the continent 
near which they lie. Thus the West Indies are a mountain range 
extending from the Mexican coast, the lower part of which is 
below sea-level. The same is true of the chain of islands extend- 
ing from Alaska, and also of that off the coast of Asia. This is 
shown on the Plat-Globe. 

Oceanic islands are far from the continents. Many of them 
are volcanic peaks. The grand division of Oceania consists of 
the high volcanic peaks of a great plateau in the Pacific Ocean. 
The tops of the volcanic peaks are al)ove sea-level ; the floor of 
the plateau is below it, and the base of the whole is in the ocean 
depths. 

Islands played n most important part in early exploration, for 



22 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

they formed links in a chain for adventurers whose ships might 
not have been able to cross a pathless ocean. The Norse voyages 
to America by way of Iceland are examples. Today, in addition 
to acting as sources of revenue to sovereign states and as refuges 
for surplus population, islands, especially the oceanic ones, are 
highly prized as fuel supply stations for ships, and as cross-roads 
junctions for the transfer and exchange of commodities. The 
importance attached to island colonies by ourselves, and by the 
great nations of Europe, is evidence of their value as possessions. 

AGENTS OF CHANGE 

To understand the effects of our physical environment upon 
industry and commerce, we must realize that the earth has not 
always been as it is today, and that tomorrow it will be different. 
From the beginning, a small series of agents have been actively 
engaged in molding its surface, and they will still be at work 
many ages hence. These agents are of two classes — one working 
from the interior of the earth, the other operating on the surface. 
The first, interior heat and rock movement, tend to make the 
surface rougher; the second, weathering, wind, running water, 
snow and ice, and the standing water of the seas, strive to grade 
off the earth's surface more nearly to a plain at levels not far 
above the sea. 

Heat of the Interior. — The interior of the earth becomes hot 
rapidly downward, and most of it is at an intensely high tem- 
perature. Yet, because of the pressure exerted upon it, it remains 
solid. But whenever a chance offers, this hot and mobile solid 
liquefies and presses its way up into the overlying rocks, giving 
the great granite masses that occupy so much of Canada, New 
England, and Scandinavia. If it is able to reach the surface, 
volcanoes are formed. 

Heat and pressure inside the earth also change rocks so as 
often to make them more resistant, and so causes them to stand 
up as mountain and plateau masses. Heat is also responsible 
for much of the wealth of metallic mineral deposits of the world. 
Rock Movement. — The rocks near the earth's surface are in 
almost constant slow motion. Land rises and falls. Strata are 
folded, or perhaps broken and slid, one part past the other. This 



THE LANDS . 23 

last operation we call "faulting," and the break is called a 
"fault." By means of this slow movement, rocks have often 
moved for distances varying from small amounts to thousands of 
feet, and when the land is worn down w^e find on opposite sides 
of such break, rocks that do not fit together, but are joined like 
tw^o pieces of dissimilar wood in cabinet-work. Sometimes valu- 
able mineral veins occupy the cracks along which the slipping 
occurred. All these movements are so slow as to require thou- 
sands of years to produce the results described above. In this 
way the structures are formed that are shown in most mountain 
and plateau regions. 

Weathering. — The weather acts ceaselessly upon the surface, 
disintogratiug and decaying the rocks downward for a few inches 
or feet. Pleat and cold, moisture, frost, and in addition plants 
and burrowing animals, all conspire to break the rocks into small 
bits; which either form soil or are carried away l)y the agents 
described below. Thus the level of the land is constantly lowered 
by their destructive action. No region is so hot or so cold, so 
moist or so dry, as to escape these effects. 

Wind. — Wind is very active in shaping the land; not only in 
deserts and on sandy coasts, but over all the surface not too 
densely covered with vegetation. Even a breeze blows away fine 
matter, as one realizes in a city street on a blustery day; and the 
amount of dust and sand moved each year in all parts of the 
world is very large. In time this changes the nature of the land 
surface noticeably. Moreover, the sand grains are a successful 
cutting tool, and erode rock rapidly. Desert landscape, due to 
these two activities, is unique. 

Running Water. — By far the largest share in wearing down 
the continents is borne by streams. Even in most of the arid 
regions they w^ork at times, although the streams may scarcely 
outlive the storms that produce them. A large part of the rain- 
fall either runs off on the surface in rivulets and larger streams, 
or sinks into the ground, feeding plants, and becoming part of 
the ground-water or running slowly do\sTi to the valleys to enlarge 
the brooks and rivers. 

In their upper and swifter parts, streams erode the land, 
aided by loose fragments broken up by weathering. The hardest 
rock is not proof against the cutting force of torrents, armed 



24 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

with boulders, pebbles and sand. As the work has gone on cease- 
lessly for ages, the total effect has been to change the landscape 
completely, not once but many times. If they are free to erode 
long enough, the rivers wear down the highest mountains to gently 
rolling plains, close to sea-level. Interruptions have often 
occurred, the land rising bodily, lifting a plain of erosion into 
a plateau; or strata deposited under the sea are raised and 
crumpled into mountain ranges and systems, to form new land 
subject in its turn to destruction by running water. In fact, the 
topography of the continents, which exerts such a dominating 
influence upon all mankind, is at any place the result of the 
mutually antagonistic forces tending on the one hand to elevate 
the land surface and on the other to wear it down to sea-level 
by the efforts chiefly of streams. 

In the lower part of a stream's course the speed of its cur- 
rent becomes less, and instead of wearing away the rocks it drops 
its load of sediment in the form of a flood-plain, which may 
become a delta at the ocean-front. Many of the most fertile 
plains of the world have been thus formed. Their one great 
drawback is danger from floods, such as those recurring often 
along the Ohio and the Mississippi. To guard against destruc- 
tion of life and property from these floods has taxed the ingenuity 
of engineers. 

Snow and Ice. — Snow is often a preservative, as every farmer 
knows. But when it falls on steep mountain slopes, avalanches 
may be started, tearing up the rock and perhaps destroying vil- 
lages lying in the valley 

Ice is effective chiefly in the form of glaciers, of which there 
are many in high latitudes and on the mountains at low latitudes. 
They carve the peaks into sharp and inaccessible pinnacles, gouge 
the river valleys into deep U-shaped gorges, and leave the valleys 
of small branch streams hung up above the main valleys, giving 
rise to beautiful water-falls. They dump the debris they have 
cut from the rock floors, or have received from frost weathering 
on the mountain slopes above them, in ridges, or moraines, at 
the end of the ice. These cause chains of lakes in the valley when 
the ice melts, forming natural reservoirs for agriculture or water 
power. 

Just before the present age, and when primitive man had 



THE LANDS 25 

recently come upon the earth, northern Europe and North 
America lay under vast ice-sheets, thousands of feet thick. This 
ice flowed southward until it met a climate so warm that the ice 
front melted as fast as more ice could flow down. The glaciers 
cut down mountains and lesser projections of rock, and deposited 
the rock fragments under them and at their front. The glacial 
"drift," as this debris is called, is responsible for innumerable 
lakes, like those of Finland and parts of the United States and 
Canada; and these lakes, and the glacial water-falls of many rivers, 
have fostered manufacturing in New Elngland and other similar 
regions. Glacial deposits also formed the greatest fishing banks of 
the world — the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, and those off the 
New England coast and in the North Sea. Glaciation is respon- 
sible for the comparative scarcity and small size of the animals 
of today. 

The growth, movement and melting of these great ice-sheets 
were so slow tliat we cannot, well measure the time they took to 
do their work. Possibly hundreds of thousands of years were 
consumed in accomplishing what has just been described; and the 
ice finally melted away from northern North America only about 
a score of thousands of years ago. 

Water of Lakes and Seas. — Standing water works through 
waves and currents. The latter are effective chiefly through influ- 
ence on climate, carrying warmth into colder regions, as the Gulf 
Stream does, and less commonly bringing cold water past coasts 
of lower latitude, chilling the climate, like the Lal)rador current. 
This influence is of the utmost importance, for the climate of 
the northwest coast of Europe, the northeastern coast of North 
America, and its Pacific coast as well, is strongly affected by it. 
Sometimes a contact of currents of the two types causes grave 
dangers, as the fog banks off Newfoundland. 

Waves pound the shores of continents and islands ceaselessly. 
In time they will make the most irregular coast straight, cutting 
back the rocky headlands and filling the bays with sand and 
gravel. Much of the debris is deposited on the sea-bottom, help- 
ing to form the continental ^helf. The sea, however, is unable to 
cut l)ack the margins of the continents indefinitely, and its effects 
are by no means as great as thosa of streams. 



26 



aEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 



LAND FORMS 




Mountains. — Mountains are especially high land, with small 
area at their summits. So varied is custom that where the land 
as a whole is plain and low, eminences a few hundred feet in 

height are called mountains; 
while in rugged regions those 
many hundreds of feet above 
the surrounding land may be 
called hills. Mountains are 
usually the result of upheaval 
of the earth's rocks, modi- 
fied in their shape by the 
erosive processes, especially 
streams, and occasionally gla- 
ciers. They are commonly 
found in groups, often more 
or less in line, with "passes" 
between, which may be only 
slightly lower than the sum- 
mits themselves. The great 
mountain regions of the world 
are vast groups or systems, composed of smaller groups, or 
ranges. Thus we speak of the Cordilleran System, extending 
from Alaska for thousands of miles southward. But it is com- 
posed of many ranges, of which the Coast Range is an example. 
The Flat-Globe shows the chief mountain ranges which extend 
along the coasts or through the interior of the continents and 
islands. They have had great influence in fixing boundary lines 
between nations, and upon commerce and climate. With the 
Pyrenees, between France and Spain ; the Alps, between Austria 
and Italy; and the Himalaj^as, between Tibet and India, it is evi- 
dent that mountain chains form not only natural boundaries 
between nations, but also between the languages of peoples. 

High and especially continuous mountain ranges obstruct 
commerce. Along the southeast coast of China are several fine 
natural ports, such as Amoy and Fuchau, but their importance 
is greatly diminished by the fact that mountains stretch between 
them and the densely peopled valley of the Yangtse ; so that trade 



A PEAK OF MONT BLANC 



THE LANDS 



27 



between this coast line and tiie interior is difficult and costly. 
Were it not lor the Arlberg tunnel, intercourse between Austria 
and Switzerland would be; very difficult; and Italy would l)e almost 
cut off from France and central Europe if the Mont Cenis, St. 
Gotthard, Lbtschberg- and Simplon tunnels had not been con- 
structed through the Alps. All the railways from the Pacilic that 




THE MATTEIUK)|{N 



have chmbed tlie Andes of South America rise two miles or more 
into the air. 

Because mountain ranges obstruct commerce and human inter- 
course, the passes that cross the ranges are of the highest 
importance, for commerce between peoples on the opposite sides 
must concentrate at the passes. Hence such passes as lead from 
Italy to Austria, and from India to Thibet, are worth the sacri- 
fice of many thousands of lives if necessary in their defense. It 
is fortunate for the United States that nature provided compara- 
tively low passes among the Ai)])alacliian I'anges in the eastern 
part of the United States to the Atlantic seaboard as gateways 
for great railroad routes; and that the passes through which rail- 



28 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

ways cross the great western mountain ranges are reached by- 
long and gentle slopes. The low grades on the Grand Trunk 
Pacific railway of Canada, by which the Pacific coast is reached 
at Prince Rupert with but a few score miles of mountain road 
on even, gentle slopes, are a national asset in Canada's trans- 
portation problem. 

Mountains supply large quantities of water for power and irri- 
gation. Western miners use this power to drive mining ma- 
chinery. The wheels of industry in Switzerland are turned by 
the torrents that descend the Alps. Nitrogen for fertilizer is 
extracted from the air by its aid. Within the past few years the 
power of mountain streams has been converted into electricity, 
and the electric current flows along copper wires, furnishing both 
light and power to communities hundreds of miles distant. Many 
mountains are clad with forests, and mountains are among the 
largest sources of forest wealth. Waaler is retained in the form 
of snow and ice on the higher slopes till it is needed in the sum- 
mer season of crops for irrigation far below. 

Mountain scenery is as substantial a source of gain as wheat 
or hay. Tourists leave millions of dollars in Switzerland every 
year, and our finest mountain regions are attracting more sight- 
seers every year. Mountains also supply a large part of the 
metals and other minerals, and are therefore the scene of great 
mining industries. 

In every land we may see the effect of mountain ranges upon 
climate. The Pacific ranges prevent the free circulation of rain- 
laden winds from the ocean, which part with their moieture on 
the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas, so that the great moun- 
tains to the east of them are arid. The Alps shield the Riviera, 
from the cold northeast winds, so that Nice is warmer in winter 
than Rome. The mountains of Scandinavia stop the warm moist 
winds from the Atlantic, and the Atlantic coast enjoys the milder 
oceanic climate, while the Baltic coast is very cold in winter. 

The highest mountain peak in the world is Mount Everest, 
29,002 feet, in the Himalayas, on the border between Tibet and 
Nepal; the highest mountain of North America is Mount McKinley, 
in Alaska, 20,300 feet; of South America, Aconcagua, in Argentina, 
23,091 feet; of Europe, Mont Blanc, in France, 15,781 ; in Africa, 
Kilimanjaro, 19,780; in Australia, Mt, Kosciusco, 7,328 feet. 



THE LANDS 



29 



Volcanoes. — Among the violent processes of nature is the 
expulsion from the interior of the earth of steam and hot vapors, 
molten rock or lava, and more or less finely divided bits of lava 
called, according to the size of the pieces, pumice, ash, or dust, 
which is spread over the surface of the land or on the sea-floor. 
Sometimes the lava flows gently from the orifice, or craterj but 
often it is accompanied by ex- 
I)losions of steam, which are 
a prominent feature of the 
eruptions of Vesuvius, or by 
outbursts of gases such as 
destroyed the city of St. Pierre 
in Martinique. Whether quiet 
or explosive, these phenomena 
are called volcanic eruptions. 
When the lava and ash poured 
through the crater are heaped 
up around the opening, the 
material in many cases is built 
to a great height, resulting in 
a volcanic peak. 

The causes of volcanic erup- 
tions are not well understood, 
but steam has undoubtedly 
something to do with the pro- 
duction of volcanic activity. 
The disti'ibution of volcanoes 
near tli<' margins of continents 
in mountainous country, or on the sea floor, frequently in chains, 
indicates that they are formed by the same forces that produce 
mountains. 

Volcanoes are found in all parts of the world, but many of them 
have lost their activity and are extinct. They are defined as active 
when they are more or less frequently in eruption, and as dormant 
when they have not erupted for a long [)eriod, but show indica- 
tions that they may awaken again. Vesuvius was thought to be 
extinct when it suddenly burst into activity in 79 A.D. After the 
normal types of eruption have entirely ceased, volcanoes may 
emit hot vapors and steam, with hot water, for centuries. 




VESUVIUS, lOOfi 



30 



GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 



There are also great outflows of lava from fissures, which do 
not form mountains, the lavas being so fluid that they flow far 
and wide, covering vast tracts of country with lava sheets, as in 
the basin of the Columbia River, in Idaho and the neighboring 
States. Where the lavas are less fluid they are blown into myriads 




VOLCANIC ERUPTION IN JAVA 



of pieces, large and small, and fall around the crater, and the 
mountain thus produced is called a cinder cone or an ash cone. The 
term volcanic ash does not mean the residue left by combustion, 
but the great quantities of dust and other finely divided lava that 
are blown thousands of feet into the air. Sometimes the molten 
matter is forced up through long rifts between the strata and 
hardens into rock. In this way the Palisades of the Hudson were 
formed. 

In accounts of eruptions one often reads of flames and ash; 
but students of volcanoes agree that there is little combustion in 
a volcanic outburst. Steam forms the greater part of the vapor 
and gas emitted. Almost the only inflammable gas in these erup- 



THE LANDS 31 

tions is believed to be a small amount of hydrogen, but its quan- 
tity is insufficient to contribute to the spectacular features of a 
volcano by its burning. What appears to be flame in an eruption 
is usually the reflection of molten lava from the under side of 
clouds above. 

Along the western coast of the Americas are many great vol- 
canoes, of which not a few in Latin America and Alaska are very 
active. In the United States and Canada the number showing even 
slight signs of activity is small. Among the most famous vol- 
canoes are Vesuvius, in Italy, whose eruptions, studied for 2,000 
years, have sometimes been terrific. The first one recorded, in 
79 A.D., overwhelmed the towns of Pomi)eii and Herculaneum. 
Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands, has been called the "Light- 
house of the Mediterranean," because it is always active and 
illumines the sea for miles around at night. One of the largest 
volcanoes is Etna, in Sicily, with craters not only on the top, but 
also on the sides, where small cones have been built by eruf^tions. 
The active volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are in the island 
of Hawaii, the highest being Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. A 
great number of oceanic islands have been formed by the out- 
pouring of lavas, the increasing accumulations finally appearing 
above the surface of the oceans. Iceland, Japan, Java, Sumatra 
and other parts of the East Indies, are still fields of very great 
volcanic activity. 

Among the greatest eruptions of recent years are those of 
Krakatoa, between Java and Sumatra in 1883, perhaps the most 
stufx'ndous within the period of human history; Taal, in Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, in 1911, and Katmai, Alaska, in 1912. 

Earthquakes. — In connection with mountain-building and with 
volcanic eruptions, the rocks are often subjected to so great and 
sudden strains that they break, the blocks moving past each other, 
often under great pressure. This movement sets up vibrations 
in the surrounding rocks, which may be felt as an earthquake. 
They range all the way from shocks so feeble as to be detected 
only by the most delicate instruments, called seismographs, to 
those so violent as to change the surface of the land and sea- 
bottom, destroy much property and many lives, and be trans- 
mitted half-way around the earth so as to be easily studied by 
the aid of instruments. 



32 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

At one time or other every part of the world has felt disturb- 
ances, although the areas so violently agitated, within the his- 
toric period, as to destroy human life and property, are perhaps 
not more than a small fraction of the whole surface. There are 
large regions where earth movements, or tremors, are of daily 
occurrence in some locality or other, such as parts of Japan and 
Venezuela. Seismographs record some 3,000 of these movements 
every year in Japan, hut most of them are so slight that they 
can be detected only by the delicate instruments invented to record 
earth movements; and Avhile Japan is a land of earthquakes, only 
forty or fifty very violent and destructive shocks have been 
recorded there since the fifth century. 

Earthquakes originate usually in regions where mountain- 
building is in progress, although sometimes their starting-point is 
in lowlands in the heart of continents, as in the case of the New 
Madrid earthquake in the lower Mississippi valley; and in other 
instances the effects of earthquakes originating near the oceans are 
felt to the heart of the continents, as happened in the Charleston 
earthquake of 1886, when the earth-waves were recorded in south- 
ern Ontario and to the west of the Mississippi River. The opening 
of cracks in the earth usually accompanies these movements. 
Occasionally the fissures are wide enough to engulf houses, as in 
the Japan earthquake of 1891. The destruction of life is some- 
times appalling. Thirty thousand persons perished in the Lisbon 
earthquake, twelve thousand in the shocks that destroyed Caracas, 
Venezuela, and almost as many Japanese lost their lives in the 
calamity of 1891. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 caused, 
with its attendant fires, great loss of life and property in a 
narrow north-south zone along a fault passing through the 
city. 

Earthquakes originating under the sea have sometimes in- 
volved the people of the neighboring coasts in dire calamity by 
great waves, wrongly called ** tidal" waves, that suddenly roll in 
upon the land, causing great destruction. The shocks travel 
through the rocks at the rate of about three miles a second, 
gradually growing feebler until they finally disappear. These 
catastrophes cannot be averted, but the governments of earth- 
quake countries, like Japan, are making efforts to secure all pos- 
sible information as to the causes of the disturbances, and to teach 



THE LANDS 33 

the people what kinds of structures will best withstand severe 
earth-movements. They warn them against building their homes 
on the banks of rivers or the edges of cliffs, where they are most 
likely to be destroyed. 

Seaquakes may cause great inconvenience and danger. Before 
the days of the wireless telegraph, vessels were occasionally lost 
in parts of the ocean where no storm occurred, sunk by the blows 
of submarine earthquakes transmitted upward through the incom- 
pressible water. Others reported striking rocks, where soundings 
showed a depth of thousands of feet. Cables are often severed 
by the movements that cause these seaquakes. Thus earthquakes 
have repeatedly broken the cable running from Zante, Greece, to 
Crete, and at the breaks, where previously the bottom was prac- 
tically flat, the difference of depth between bow and stern of the 
repair ship was found to be more than 2,000 feet. In some 
places submarine earthquake precipices 5,000 feet high are 
known. 

Plateaus. — Plateaus are extensive, more or less even-surfaced 
areas that appear high from at least one side. They commonly, 
but not always, flank mountain systems, like the Piedmont plateau 
east of the Appalachians and the Appalachian plateau west of 
them. The great western high plateaus of North America are 
bounded on the west by the Cordilleran mountain system, and on 
the east by the central plains. The Iberian plateau, forming Spain 
and Portugal, has the sea on all sides except the north. ]\Iuch of 
South Africa is a vast plateau. The great Thibetan plateau of 
central Asia is flanked on the south by the Himalayas. Because 
of their altitude plateaus are often much dissected ))y streams, so 
that only remnants are left, as is the case in the Scottish High- 
lands. 

Except in low latitudes, plateaus are too cold to attract man, 
and some of the tropical and sub-tropical ones are too dry. Where 
the climate is good, however, as on the Mexican plateau, the con- 
ditions for habitation are extremely favorable. On the whole, it 
may be said that plateaus do not favor the development of a high 
degree of culture or strong political organizations. Their surface 
is more likely to be fit only for grazing, so that we depend upon 
them for nuich of our meat and wool. 

Plains. — Most of the world's peoples, perhaps as many as nine- 



34 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

tenths, live on plains, whose relief is usually low, and which give 
the utmost freedom of movement. From the earliest time they 
have been the great land highways of the earth. Their soil is 
commonly better than that of the uplands, so that most of the 
agriculture and cattle raising are conducted on them. The larger 
plains possess great navigable rivers, along which are situated 
the most important inland cities ; and where the lower courses of 
the streams are of depth sufficient for ocean carriers, busy ports 
have arisen at the mouths of the riVers or as far inland as possible. 

Of the many kinds of plains, three are of special importance. 
Coastal plains border parts of certain of the continents, such as 
the .Atlantic and gulf plains of North America. Vast interior 
lowlands may open up the heart of the continent, as the great 
central lowland of the United States and the plain occupying most 
of European Russia. Finally, the flood-plains of the larger rivers 
determine the economic, and often the political, history of certain 
centrally located regions. The Mississippi valley, part of the 
great Hungarian plain and the rich plain of the lower Danube in 
Bulgaria and Roumania are important illustrations. 

Valleys. — A few special features of land forms deserve notice. 
Irregularities of the land surface are due either to projections 
above the general level, or to valleys excavated below it. Most 
valleys owe their presence and characteristics to streams, and all 
have been molded by running water. These valleys range in 
shape from the canyons or gulches of steep mountain sides to the 
broad, open valleys occupied by great rivers. The narrower and 
steeper rock valleys are seats of power development; and along 
their sides often outcrop valuable mineral deposits, so that much 
mining is located in mountain valleys. The great rivers flow over 
flood-plains which they have laid down in broad and shallow 
valleys. 

Valleys through which navigable rivers flow are the most easily 
developed parts of the continents. They were the first to be set- 
tled when man began to carry his industries and commerce into 
the interior of the continents. Thus great river valleys came to 
be called the creators of history, because in the early days of 
development it was in the valleys of the Nile. Ganges, Indus, and 
other large rivers that the human race made much of its early 
progress. 



THE LANDS 85 

A great river, with its branches and smaller tributary streams, 
forms a river system; and the area over which the water is gath- 
ered into the master-stream and flows to the sea is called the 
water-shed, or river basin. That of the Mississippi occupies 
approximately one and one-quarter million square miles. 

Divides. — The boundary between slopes leading to different 
streams is called a divide. It may be the crest of a mountain 
range, or at least a conspicuous ridge. Frequently, however, on 
plains and plateaus the divide is almost or quite undistinguishal)le. 
In this case the course of the brooks is uncertain and variable. 
There are rivers in Canada whose divide passes through some 
small lake, from which outlets feed streams on either side of the 
divide. Another illustration is Two Ocean Pond, in the Yellow- 
stone National Park, where a bit of water is diverted sometimes 
toward the Pacific and sometimes toward the Atlantic. In 
Canada, the divide is often called the ''height of land." 

Lakes. — The irregularities of the earth's surface include many 
depressions below the general level, into which drainage is drawn. 
The water bodies that fill such depressions in all except the most 
arid regions, are called inland seas (Caspian, Dead), lakes, or, if 
they are small, ponds. Most of these lakes overflow their basins, 
and their surplus is discharged by streams into the sea. Under 
such conditions the water remains fresh; and it is from normal 
lakes and from rivers that the oceans derive their "salt." But 
there are many water bodies, ranging fr'om the great Caspian Sea 
and the smaller Dead Sea through Great Salt Lake and the small 
Salton Sea of southern California, whose waters have no outlet, 
and have gradually become saline from the constant inflow of 
salts in river water. These are all situated in arid and semi-arid 
regions, where evaporation from the lake surface is so great that 
the inlet streams cannot cope with this loss. Such lakes are com- 
monly of no commercial value. Of the four mentioned above, all 
except Great Salt Lake lie below sea-level. See Flat-Glo))e. 

The origin of lakes is varied. Thousands of small lakes and 
ponds are caj)able of furnishing water-power and water supply 
for our use. Many are the centers of delightful resorts for sum- 
mer or \\Tnter. Large lakes are very useful in commerce, because 
they permit the transportation of freight in the interior of the 
continents at small cost. The largest system of lake navigation 



36 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

in the world is provided by the Great Lakes of North America, on 
which steamers carry at low freight rates many times the tonnage 
of commodities that is borne through the Suez Canal, 

Coasts, — Coastal outlook is a prime requisite of every nation, 
if it would develop political and economic strength. But some 
coasts are so difficult of access from the interior, or so low and 
harborless, as to be sources of weakness to a country rather than 
of strength. 

In general, coasts are of two classes. One is rocky, abounding 
in headlands and bays, reefs and islands, and may be abrupt and 
forbidding or low and accessblc. The other is so low as to be 
nearly flat, sandy, straight, often with sand l)ars off the shore, 
behind which lie lagoons or marshes. The water oft' the first is 
bold, and deep-draft ocean vessels can enter its good harbors; the 
water oft' the second is shallow for a long distance seaward, and 
in some instances vessels must anchor in the open sea, and trans- 
fer their cargoes to flat lighters, by which the freight and 
y)assengers are carried to land. In the United States, the New 
England coast represents the first class, that of Texas the second. 
The insecurity of Galveston is due to its location on an off-shore 
bar; and elaborate engineering precautions have been necessary, 
not only to enable vessels to dock in safety, but to prevent repeti- 
tion of the terrible disaster of September, 1900, in which the city 
was all but annihilated. 

The rocky type of embayed coast furnishes many of the finest 
harbors in the world, like those of San Francisco and of Halifax, 
Nova Scotia. But it often happens that difficult railway transpor- 
tation inland from such harbors hinders the commercial develop- 
ment of the port; or it may be that there is no country back of 
the harbors whose characteristics favor economic activity on a 
large scale. The Norwegian fjords are examples of such harbors. 

Our Atlantic coast, from Long Island and New York south- 
ward to the Mexican border, is fortunate in having some of the 
best features of both classes of coastal belts. The country inland 
from the sea is low and accessible, and approach by rail from the 
interior of the continent is not difficult. But instead of an 
unbroken, straight shore-line, we find here and there harbors such 
as Long Island Sound, New York Harbor, and Delaware and 
Chesapeake Bays, by which vessels can penetrate far inland, 



THE LANDS 37 

carrying" tho low freij^ht costs of ocean transjjortation and k'sseu- 
in*»: tho length of expensive rail haul for goods to and from the 
interior. The English harbors are much like ours in this respect; 
and their value is enluniced by the range of the tide, so that at 
high tide vessels can dock many miles above the submerged 
mouths of the rivers. 

The " Glacial Accident." — Mention has been made of the work 
of the great ice sheets that, only a short time ago, covered noi-th- 
ern North America and Europe. The ett'ects of this accident to 
the general development of the land have been marked upon man's 
activities. One of these is through the soils, and agriculture owes 
much to the visits of the ice. The soils of glaciated regions were 
made l)y mixing many kinds of rock fragments together in the 
grip of the ice; and these mixed soils, not always rich, are very 
histing, not becoming poor with constant cultivation as alluvial 
soils frequently do. 

Moreover, the relief of the land has been made less rugged by 
the smoothing and planing down of rocky hills and the filling up 
of valleys by gravel and sand. Thus the country has been made 
more accessible. Sti'eams have been turned into lakes in thou- 
sands of cases, resulting in the storage of water for man's use. 
Even navigation has been aided, for it is largely to glaciation that 
we owe the Great Lakes. The ice created no new land forms of 
importance, but it altered old ones in a way often of l)enetit to 
us. Long Island, so necessary to New York City as a resort and 
as a supply depot for garden vegetables, would be but an insig- 
nificant island of soft clay, were it not for the mantle of glacial 
deposits causing it to have a length of one hundred and twenty 
miles. It is interesting also to know that, if the glacial gravels 
were to be swept away from Manhattan Island, New York City, 
all the wholesale and financial portions of the world's metropolis 
would disappear. 

The Life History of Land Forms. — It may not be amiss to point 
out that all land forms have a history, developing in an orderly 
way from wliat we may call infancy, through youth and maturity 
to old age. The precise efifects of topography upon human affairs 
depend almost as much uj)on the stage in life history of moun- 
tains, plateaus, plains, rivers and coasts, as u])on the nature of 
those forms. Thus young mountains are the most complete land 



38 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

barriers, and their formidable character does Dot begin to lessen 
appreciably until maturity is passed. Old mountains have no such 
importance. The Himalayas are examples of the first, the White 
Mountains of the last. Rocky coasts, on the other hand, are most 
useful when young, while their harbors are unfilled with debris 
swept in from headlands. Rivers are best for power when young; 
but for navigation we rely upon those that have reached old age, 
or at least maturity. Thus every nation depends for many of its 
characteristics, not merely upon the kinds of land forms within 
its borders, but upon their life history. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 

General Character. — Completely inclosing- the rock and water 
portions of the earth is a gaseous envelope, some hundreds oi' 
miles thick. It is so much a part of the earth that it moves witli 
the latter through space, and rotates as the remainder of the earth 
does. It is this gas mixture, friction with which heats meteors 
to incandescence. It is of the utmost necessity to life, vegetable 
and animal, low and high. The kinds of gas composing it are 
not many — nitrogen, nearly four-tifths, oxygen, al)out one-fifth, 
and small quantities of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other 
less important gases. In addition there is a very variable amount 
of dust. Rain and snow purify the air by bringing these dust 
motes down to the earth, whether they be dirt or low forms of 
life. 

Oxygen is the life-element, and its chemical action upon lilood 
impurities is necessary to sustain all higher life by burning these 
impurities off. This is what occurs when we breathe. Nitrogen 
gives density to the air, and dilutes the oxygen. Aviators take 
advantage of its presence in lifting their machines from the 
ground by engine power. The small amount of carbonic acid is 
found chiefly near the ground, and is needed by plants for the 
chemical changes undergone by them in growing. Water vapor 
is present in the dryest air, to some extent, and human life could 
not exist without it. 

A very large part of the atmosphere is within a few miles of 
sea-level, so that man cannot breathe at higher altitudes, and the 
density of the air is insulhcient to float balloons or to sustain 
airplanes, no matter how powerful their engines. 

Temperature and its Measurement. — We speak of the air as 
hot, warm, cool or cold, and our sensations reflect, although not 
accurately, a real condition. The decrease of temperature from 
the tropics to the polar zones is very slow; but as one ascends 
from sea-level or from the land it is very rapid, and it is for this 
reason that aviators wear such heavy clothing, even in mid- 
311 



40 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

summer. Not only does the temperature vary greatly from place 
to place, but from time to time in the same place ; and the amount 
and suddenness of this change often affects seriously the possi- 
bility of growing certain crops. Finally, temperature varies from 
season to season — very slightly in some areas near the sea, like 
Manila, very greatly on land far removed from ocean winds, like 
eastern Russia. 

It is necessary to keep track of these temperature changes, 
and to do this we must measure them by some standard. We do 
this by means of thermometers, the chief type of which is familiar 
to everyone. What is not so well known, however, is the nature 
of the standard. The English-speaking countries have long used 
a scale called the Fahrenheit, in which the freezing point of water 
is 32°, the boiling point 212°, and the interval between the two 
therefore is occupied by 180 divisions. According to this scale, 
zero is 32° below freezing. The other advanced nations of the 
world employ a decimal scale called the Centigrade, in which freez- 
ing is at zero, boiling at 100°. Thus 0° Centigrade is the same 
as 32° Fahrenheit, and 100° Centigrade is 212° Fahrenheit. 

The first system is clumsy, and like other measurement meth- 
ods not based upon the decimal system, will gradually be aban- 
doned. No scientific work is recorded today on other than a 
decimal scale. It is worth while, therefore, to see how we can 
convert one thermometer scale into the other — for instance 77° 
Fahrenheit into Centigrade or 20° Centigrade into Fahrenheit. 
To change Fahrenheit thermometer reading to Centigrade reading 
just subtract 32°, then multiply the result by 5/9; to reverse the 
change, first multiply by 9/5, then add 32°. Thus — 
77° F. = 25° C, by the thermometer. 

(1) 77 — 32 = 45. 

(2) 45 X 5/9 = 25° Centigrade. 
20° C. = 68° F., by the thermometer. 

(1) 20X9/5 = 36. 

(2) 36 4-32 = 68° Fahrenheit. 

In practical work, it is worth while to have a permanent record 
of temperature changes. These we make on the thermograph, an 
instrument having a revolving paper, on which the changes for 
twenty-four hours are recorded by a pen attached to an arm that 
moves as the temperature goes up or down. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 41 

It is also necessary, in order to understand the characteristics 
of climate, to record on maps average temjjeratures at various 
places. This is done by connecting ))y lines all places having the 
same average, and the line is called an '^isothermal line," or an 
"isotherm." On page 55 will be found a map of the world show- 
ing the climatic belts that depend upon the average temperatures 
for January and July. 

Pressure and its Measurement. — The air has weight, hence 
presses upon us from all sides. This would be fatal, were it not 
that the air in cells within our bodies has the same pressure. At 
sea-level, in good weather, this pressure is nearly fifteen pounds 
on each square inch of surface. As we ascend from sea-level it 
is less, or the air is "rarer"; and if we rise too rapidly we suffer 
from nose-bleeding and dizziness. If we descend too rapidly into 
deep mines, the increased pressure makes our heads ache. It is 
this rapid decrease of density of the air upward that limits the 
altitude that can be reached bj" balloons and airplanes. 

The density of the air changes also in all places, from hour to 
hour and from day to day, and this has direct connection with 
the weather. In fine weather the air is dense, in foul weather it 
is lighter. 

It is necessary to measure this density, and this is done by the 
barometer and the barograph. The former is a glass tube filled 
with mercury. The upper end is closed and the lower end, about 
thirty-one or two inches below, is placed in a dish of mercury. The 
pressure of the air on the latter holds up the column in the tube; 
hence when the air is dense and the pressure greater, the column 
will be higher, and we say "the barometer is high." This is char- 
acteristic of fair weather. Barographs record permanently the 
pressure changes, in much the same way as temperature changes 
are recorded. We state the records of pressure as so many inches 
of mercury, whatever the height of the column may be as measured 
in inches. The decimal system is popularly used in the English- 
speaking countries only in representing parts of an inch in tenths 
and hundredths. Scientists every^-here use the metric system of 
measurement. 

Moisture. — There is no such thing as dry air; some water 
vapor is always present, even on deserts. Air can contain only 
a certain amount of this vapor, without causing the latter to con- 



42 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

dense and become drops of water. Hot air can contain much, 
cold air little. Hence if warm air that has considerable moisture 
is cooled, a temperature may be reached at which, instead of being 
invisible, it will become visible in the form of drops. If these 
drops become too large, they fall as rain. It is evident, therefore, 
that the ability of the air to keep its moisture in vapor form has 
much to do with weather. 

Dew and Frost. — Often at night the ground, and the air near 
it, are chilled rapidly. If the air contains much moisture it is 
condensed in drops, often of exquisite beauty, and dew forms. 
When the temperature drops appreciably below 32° F., the result 
is frost instead of dew. Both are more likely to appear on clear 
than on cloudy nights, because the earth chills more rapidly then. 
Windy nights are less likely to be accompanied by dew or frost 
than still nights, because the moving air has no chance to deposit 
its drops or form its frost crystals. We speak of dew as "fall- 
ing"; it does not fall, but forms where we see it. We are accus- 
tomed also to say, when we see a heavy dew in the morning, 
that good weather will follow. It probably will, because there 
was not enough moisture in the air to keep the earth's heat from 
passing off rapidly during the night. This effect of the abund- 
ance or scarcity of moisture is noticed on cloudy and clear days, 
for nights following the former are not so likely to be cold as 
those following the latter. 

Fog. — Fog is formed by the cooling of warm moist air, at and 
near the land or sea surface. Over large areas, and for heights 
ranging from a few feet to a thousand or more, mvriads of drops 
appear in the air, shutting out the vision of distant objects par- 
tially or completely. These drops have a tendency to form around 
dust and smoke particles, and cities thus afflicted are more likely 
to have frequent fogs than the surrounding country. Sometimes 
in valleys the still air has cooled so far at night as to produce 
fog there while none has been formed on the upland; and valleys 
in the same way may be visited by frost on a night when the 
higher lands are free. On the ocean, mixtures of cold currents 
with warm often cause fog by cooling the moist warm air; and 
when icebergs add their chilling presence, as those brought down 
in early summer by the Labrador current to the Grand BanJjs, 
fogs are doubly serious. 



44' GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Clouds. — Clouds are like fog, but lie higher in the air; and 
between their bases and the land or sea below, the air is compara- 
tively clear. They are formed in several ways, but chiefly three. 
Water vapor rising from the sea or from large water bodies may 
be borne aloft to a moderate height, where, although the tempera- 
ture is not low, there is now too much moisture and condensation 
takes place. Or a strong upward current of air containing only 
a moderate amount of moisture, as over the land, may rise so 
high as to encounter a temperature much lower than that nearer 
the earth, and some of the moisture must be condensed because 
the capacity of the air for vapor is reduced by cooling. Or, third, 
warm, moist air may be blown over a cold region or against a 
cold mountainside, with the same result. 

Clouds have distinct forms, and these are of value as indi- 
cations of weather conditions that will soon obtain. The chief 
countries maintaining weather bureaus have de\nsed a cloud- 
classification which includes four main types and nine or ten 
subordinate and combination forms. 

Cumulus clouds are rounded masses like heaps of wool with 
flat bottoms, usually formed at the top of an ascending column 
of air at moderate height. Cirrus clouds, light and feathery in 
appearance, are formed at heights of several miles, and consist 
of tiny ice crystals. The former arc usually, but not always, 
associated with fair weather, and often form at the rear of a 
storm as the weather becomes better. Cirrus clouds are the 
highest of all. They take various forms, such as mackerel clouds 
or flocculent masses of white, feather plumes, and streamers called 
''mares' tails" by sailors. Rain or snow is apt to follow the 
last named forms. As a rule, gathering clouds indicate rain; 
disappearing clouds are the sign of fair weather. And as storms 
move in temperate latitudes from west to east, both may be looked 
for in the west. Stratus clouds extend in long horizontal layers, 
and are formed much nearer the earth than are cirrus clouds. 
Nimbus clouds are widely spread cloud masses from which rain 
or snow is falling. Their bases are vague, and frequently the 
rain can be seen falling in streamers from them, in an approach- 
ing shower. 

I Rainfall.— This term, called ''precipitation" by weather bu- 
reaus, includes rain, snow, hail and sleet. Wlien water vapor 



46 GEOGKAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

condenses so far that the particles of water become too large for 
the air to hold them up, they fall to the earth in one of the forms 
above mentioned. The vapor crystallizes into snowflakes if the 
condensation occurs at a temperature below the freezing-point. 
Sleet is half-melted snow. Hail, or frozen rain, usually occurs 
during summer thunderstorms. As a rule hailstorms consist of 
alternate layers of snow and ice. 

The rainfall of the United States is heaviest along the North 
Pacific coast, the Gulf coast and the Appalachian mountains. In 
these regions it is not far from 80 inches a year. East of the 
100th meridian it is from 25 inches to 40 inches in the northern 
half and from 40 inches to 60 inches in the southern half. In the 
western highlands it is from 10 inches to 15 inches. There are 
a few regions in which rain may not fall for many years, like 
the nitrate deserts of Chile. In contrast to this, Assam has a 
record of 900 inches in one year, mostly during five months. 

In semi-arid regions, Avhere the rainfall is less than 20 inches 
a year, all or nearly all falls in one short season. The time of 
that season seriously affects agriculture ; for if the rain falls dur- 
ing the winter, a resting stage of crops, or during the late sum- 
mer, when crops are ripening, little can be raised. But if a suffi- 
cient amount falls in the spring, the germinating and growing 
season, far larger crops will result. 

Rainbows, Hales, and Mirages. — When the sun shines on drops 
of railing water, an arch of Ught is formed in the sky opposite 
the sun, showing the colors of the prism. This arch is called a 
rainbow. The sun's rays are refracted by each drop of water, 
and the white sunlight is broken up into the primary and sec- 
ondary colors that form it. At times, at the end of a summer 
shower, one may see a second rainbow inside the first, with the 
colors reversed in order; and occasionally even a third appears. 
For rainbows to form clearly, the sun must be near the 
horizon. 

Around the sun or moon, when the air is whitening with 
gradually forming cirrus clouds, rings may be seen, some of those 
occurring during the day being colored. These are halos, and 
are useful to the extent that they emphasize the presence of 
forming cirrus clouds, and thus often portend a storm. 

In flat desert regions, on hot smooth pavements, and some- 



THE ATMOSPHEKE 47 

times on the water, one may see during the warmer parts of the 
day curious distortions and repetitions of real objects. Sometimes 
the latter "loom" up, or grow extraordinarily tall; sometimes, 
below objects and somewhat separated from them, images of the 
objects will be seen; or it may be that distant low sky is seen below 
as an apparent lake, and many a weary and thirsty traveller in 
the west has thus been lured on and on, toward lakes that never 
existed. The western shores of Great Salt Lake abound in these 
illusions or mirages. At times the image is seen above the object, 
and inverted, as a ship that has gone below the horizon, visible in 
inverted form for some minutes after being lost to direct view. 

Winds. — Winds are the chief factor not only in carrying 
warmth to cold regions and cool air to hot regions; but in dis- 
tributing the moisture that rises from the sea over the greater 
part of the earth. 

Air when heated expands and becomes lighter than the sur- 
rounding air. Being pressed on the sides by denser air, the 
lighter rises to such level as encounters air of its own density. 
The heavier air around it presses in and, heated in its turn, rises 
after the first. The difference in atmospheric density or pressure 
thus causes the air to flow, and this flow is wind. 

Wherever high pressure prevails the air moves towards a 
region of low pressure. These differences in atmonpheric pres- 
sure not only cause the winds ; they also determine their direction 
and force. 

Regions of high and low pressure are indicated on the weather 
maps by the use of isobars, or lines drawn through places having 
equal pressure. They are designated as "High" or "Low." On 
these maps arrows mark the direction of the wind; they are 
pointed away from the areas of high pressure and toward those 
of low pressure. The average velocity of winds in the United 
States is 5 to 14 miles an hour. This velocity depends upon the 
rate of the change of' pressure toward or away from a High or 
a Low. Thus, when the isobars are close together, the wind is 
correspondingly high. The winds in ordinary storms vary from 
forty to ninety miles an hour; in tornadoes the velocity is several 
hundred miles an hour. 

Winds are of two classes, forming the general planetary cir- 
culation of the atmosphere and the secondary circulation. Along 



48 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

the highly heated equatorial belt the air rises as in a vast chimney, 
spreading out at a height of several miles and flowing toward 
the poles. This region, because it has little ordinary' wind, is 
called the Belt of Equatorial Calms, and has long been known to 
sailors as the '^Doldrums." Toward this belt surface air is 
drawn from either side, forming the Trade Winds. Because of 
the rotation of the earth from west to east these Avinds appear 
to us on its surface, not as north and south winds but as north- 
east trades and southeast trades. These winds are constant in 
many places; but in some regions the heat belts migrate so far 
north in our summer and so far south in winter, because of the 
difference in attitude of the surface with relation to the sun, that 
a locality may be in a trade wind belt during one season and 
in the doldrums at another. Such winds are then periodic. 

Outside or poleward of the trade wind belts are narrow zones 
of down-draft air, bringing good weather, such as that of southern 
California and the Riviera in Italy. These are the Belts of 
Variable Winds and Calms — the "Horse Latitudes" of sailors. 
Beyond these are the two broad Belts of the Prevailing West- 
erlies or Antitrades, characteristic of temperate latitudes. These 
are the regions of modem civilization in general. In these zones 
the winds are not constant, or even periodic, but variable on 
account of storm disturbances. This is especially true in the 
northern hemisphere. These winds should be south and north 
winds, liowing toward the poles. But the rotation of the earth 
makes them appear to us as southwest winds in the northern 
hemisphere, and northwest in the southern hemisphere. 

The secondary circulation is composed of local and temporary 
disturbances of the general one. These disturbances are in the 
main of two types — cyclonic or stormy, and anticyclonic or fair 
weather disturbances. The former include the hurricanes, 
typhoons, or tropical cyclones, and our ordinary storms, called 
extra-tropical cyclones. Anticyclones, often as violent as storms, 
occur only in the zone of the antitrades. Winds in cyclones blow 
inward toward the low pressure center, in this hemisphere in a 
left-handed or anti-clockwise spiral. Winds in anticyclones blow 
outward, in a right-handed or clockwise spiral. 

Land and sea breezes are local periodic winds caused by the 
overheating of the land during the day and in summer; the air 



THE ATMOSPHERE 49 

over the land rising and a sea breeze flowing in to take its place. 
Overcooling- of the hind during night or winter causes the rela- 
tively warmer air over the water to rise and a land breeze flows 
seaward. A gigantic wind phenomenon called the Monsoon is 
similar to this but has a slightly different cause. In India and 
some other countries in a similar latitude the northeast trade 
wind characterizes winter. But in summer the heat belts, there- 
fore the wind belts, migrate so far north as to bring the southeast 
trades north of the equator. Here they encounter the tendency 
of all winds of this hemisphere to be deflected to the right, and 
are turned into southwest winds. These are the salvation of 
India, where hundreds of millions of human beings depend upon 
the rainfall of the summer or wet monsoon for the growing of 
their grain. England has taken extraordinary measures to aid 
the unfortunate people to live through occasional seasons when 
this wind fails, and despite all her efforts many starve at such 
times. 

Winds have the utmost economic importance. Trade winds 
bore the earliest oceanic navigators to unknown shores; they 
make deserts of low lands over which they blow; and high moun- 
tains in their path have heavy rainfall on their windward side, 
with arid conditions on the other. Winds prevailingly from the 
sea, especially the antitrades, cause heavy rainfall. Aviators 
have thus far found themselves much at the mercy of the ^^^nds, 
and even large power vessels must beware the wind that causes 
too high waves or that starts strong or unusual currents. In 
the southern hemisphere the prevailing westerlies are called 
the ** roaring forties." They are so strong that sailing vessels 
from British ports to Australia frequently saved time by 
continuing an easterly course around the world in the return 
voyage. 

Winds modify the forms of the land surfaces. In the deserts 
they pile up long ridges of sand called sand dunes. Travelers on 
the trans-Caspian railroad may see these parallel dunes, like 
ocean waves, stretching away to the horizon. Winds from the 
Desert of Gobi have filled with fine dust-like material, called 
"loess," the valleys of China more than one thousand miles away. 
More than once the lioangho has changed its channel because the 
wind filled it with rockwaste. In the western highlands winds 



50 GEOaRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

have drifted rockwaste in places several hundred feet deep. Dur- 
ing desert sand storms men and beasts must lie close to the 
ground. 

Storms and Fair Weather. — It has been stated that storms, or 
cyclones, are bodies of moist air that move spirally toward a cen- 
tral **Low," where the air rises, afterward spreading out radially 
at the top of the storm. In the northern hemisphere the spiral 
is left-hand. Storms are of several classes, whose chief differ- 
ences are in intensity. Thus the least intense is the ordinary tem- 
perate latitude storm, which may spread out over a radius of a 
thousand miles or more. The typhoon, or tropical hurricane, 
apparently has as much or more total energy, but is confined 
within a narrow zone, a few score miles across, and thus the wind 
and rain phenomena are highly intensified, and their destructive 
force correspondingly great. The tornado is so concentrated that 
the path of effective violence may be only a few hundred feet 
broad, but its energy is so great that no meteorological instru- 
ments have survived its passage, to record the features of wind, 
temperature, and pressure. Rain is not necessarily accompanied 
by a storm, or cyclonic disturbance. In the doldrums, over the 
ocean and neighboring land, it rains every day; but the only 
storms are thunderstorms. 

The extra-tropical cyclones move along definite paths, in gen- 
eral from west to east, being carried by the antitrade circulation 
of the atmosphere. Within the storm, which is almost as definite 
as a railway train hastening across country, the winds have their 
own local circulation, described abave. In any place, as a storm 
passes to the north or to the south, the wind shifts in a definite 
way, and it is often important to know, by the weather forecasts 
and maps, how the wind will change. Some of these storms, 
starting over either land or ocean, travel most of the way around 
the earth before dying out ; others have but a few thousand miles 
of passage, starting and dying. on land, or on the ocean, or start- 
ing over one and passing onto the other. The definiteness of paths 
of storms, and the frequency with which these paths are followed, 
cause a large amount of foul weather in certain belts, as northern 
New England and the St. Lawrence valley, and leave large regions 
almost entirely without stormy days. In the United States there 
are five distinct zones of storm frequency. One of these follows 



THE ATMOSPHERE 51 

the Atlantic coast at a short distance seaward, turning eastward 
near Cape Hatteras, and passing out to sea. This is the Atlantic 
coast path. The other four converge from various parts of the 
southwest and west, becoming a single broad zone in the Great 
Lake region, passing down the St. Lawrence basin and across 
northern New England. In this way the northeastern States are 
visited by a large number of storms. At New York City the 
'* northeaster" is of the coast type, the "southeaster" is one of 
the northern series. 

Anticyclones, characterized by especially fine weather, are just 
as real atmospheric disturbances as storms; and although no rain 
is produced, the wind may rise to as great force as that of a storm. 
They have their paths, also from west to east but not so regular 
as cyclonic i)aths. They are large down-drafts of dense, dry, often 
cool or cold air, which when it reaches the lower atmosphere 
spreads out in a right-hand spiral course. In general, cyclones 
and anticyclones follow each other, and in the northeastern States 
there are few days not marked by one or the other disturbance. 
In the Mississippi valley, one finds more of what may be called 
"normal weather," when the air is not very clear or the west 
wind strong, and the barometer remains stationary. Most of the 
"cold spells" and all the real blizzards are anticyclonic, the latter 
accompanied by snow. 

Troi)ical cyclones are very local and intense, and their paths 
are not long. They start in the sub-tropics; and there are five 
water areas characterized by them, all on the west side of 
oceans. One is in the southern hemisphere, east of Australia; 
the rest are in the northern hemisphere. Their violence is 
fortunately limited to about three months each year, diiferent 
seasons for the different areas, and they are still so dreaded 
as to influence strongly the rate of marine insurance for vessels 
crossing the danger zone. The West Indian hurricanes occur 
chiefly between the middle of July and the middle of October, in 
which time on the average ten typhoons are formed each year. 
They rise near the southeastern end of the Caribbean Sea, move 
northwest then north, frequently across Cuba, then turn northeast 
along, or seaward of, the coast. The Galveston hurricane of 1900 
was a typhoon that sped westward across the Gulf of Mexico, turn- 
ing northeast in Texas. The route was abnormal, and the path 



52 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

was continued so far that considerable damage was done in north- 
ern New England. 

Tornadoes are found only in the United States, chiefly in the 
Mississippi valley. Their violence is such that all kinds of build- 
ings are thrown down or seriously damaged, that lie in their nar- 
row path. So great is the velocity of objects carried by their 
wind that weak straws are driven through boards. '' Cyclone 
cellars" as places of refuge are not uncommon in regions liable 
to their visitation, strong basement rooms fitted up with food and 
rescue apparatus. Of late, a considerable volume of tornado 
insurance has been sold ; and the business is no longer an abnormal 
hazard, because the times and probability of visitation have been 
studied sufficiently to make the risk legitimate. Tornadoes occur 
during the three months beginning at the middle of March, and 
usually from two to five o'clock in the afternoon. 

Thunderstorms. — The generation of electricity may accompany 
the rapid condensation of water vapor. The production of elec- 
tricity often occurs to such degree as to induce frequent dis- 
charges of lightning from cloud to cloud, or between the clouds 
and the earth. Such a disturbance is called a thunderstorm. The 
discharges of electricity and claps of thunder may be terrific, par- 
ticularly in the tropics. The rainfall in such storms commonly 
does not exceed an hour in duration, unless a second storm follows 
closely the first one. 

In the doldrums thunderstorms occur almost every day, over 
the ocean and near-by land. In temperate latitudes they are 
characteristic of hot, sultry weather, but may form even in winter. 
They usually result from cold, dry, northwest winds blowing into 
a region of warm, moist air. No considerable damage results 
from their lightning, beyond an occasional fire; but the rain of 
hail that sometimes accompanies summer thunderstorms is very 
destructive of green-houses and tender vegetables and other 
plants. 

Aurora Borealis. — The quivering light seen in the north, but 
sometimes covering the whole sky, is called also northern lights. 
It is caused by discharges of electricity through the rarefied upper 
air. The data supplied by many observers seem to show that there 
is a belt of aurora in the northern hemisphere, the center of the 
belt passing through Hudson Bay, northern Norway, and Point 



THE ATMOSPHERE 53 

Barrow, Alaska, thus encircling the world. A similar phenom- 
enon, the aurora australis, is observed in tlie southern liemispherc. 
The height of the aurora above the earth's surface has not been 
satisfactorily determined, but it is believed that the electrical 
phenomena occur at a great altitude. 

In polar regions, especially, the aurora is very vivid, and ex- 
hibits brilliant reds and greens. In lower latitudes it is not only 
less frequent but generally paler. 

Weather and its Forecasting. — The importance of weather in 
many lines of activity is great. It regulates sailings of even the 
greatest steamers. Equally it affects pedestrian and wheeled 
traffic in a city. It causes floods whose yearly destruction in this 
country totals hundreds of millions of dollars. It guides the 
buyer of perishable vegetables and berries. Records of its state 
produced in court determine the truth or falsity of many claims 
for damage by rain or by collision. In a thousand ways it affects 
the daily life of the individual, the corporation, the community. 
It is of the utmost value, therefore, not merely to record faith- 
fully the state at all times of the various features of weather, but 
to be able to forecast future weather events as far ahead as pos- 
sible. 

The Weather Bureau, through a few elaborate stations and 
many volunteer observers, keeps most detailed records of the 
exact state of the weather daily for several hundred localities in 
this country. From certain of these observations, taken at 8 a.m. 
and 8 p.m., the Bureau prepares forecasts for twenty-four hours for 
all the main divisions of the country. In addition, several sets of 
weather maps are prepared and distributed broadcast. On these 
maps are placed isotherms, isobars, wind arrows indicating not 
only direction of wind but condition of sky, and rainfall areas in 
lines. By studying a series of these extending over a week, one 
can form a clear idea of the progress of weather phases across 
country; and it is not difficult, by means of these maps and 
observation of sky and wind, to make forecasts for one's self 
that are accurate enough to be of value for business or 
pleasure. 

Many of the important countries of the world publish weather 
maps, in not a few the maps being issued daily. Some of these are 
of great precision and abound in detail. In 1914 the United States, 



54 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

in co-operation with foreign nations and countless ships equipped 
with wireless apparatus, perfected plans for a daily interconti- 
nental and interoceanic weather map ; and the Weather Bureau was 
on the point of beginning its issue when the hostilities of July 
stopped all concerted effort. This plan, of so great importance to 
commerce, is now being put into operation once more. 

The accuracy of Weather Bureau forecasts is extraordinary 
— over 90 per cent, for one-day forecasts. For thirty-six hour 
ones the accuracy is much less. And in the present state of our 
knowledge of the atmosphere it is impossible to forecast satis- 
factorily for a month, or even for a week. 

The " Plimsoll Line " and Marine Insurance. — In Great Britain 
it is illegal to load a vessel below a line conspicuously painted 
on its hull, and called, after the man whose efforts placed the law 
on the statute books, the Plimsoll line. This line varies in posi- 
tion according to the season and the ocean. Thus it is lower for 
winter than for summer, because the greater danger from storms 
must be met by a lighter cargo. It is lower also for those seasons 
in tropical waters during which typhoons are expected. In the 
United States there is no law governing the case; but marine 
insurance companies, following Lloyds of London, insist upon a 
rigid enforcement of the requirement. This acts as an effective 
check upon the rapacity of owners and agents who would endanger 
ships and lives for the extra income derived from overloading the 
vessels with freight. 

Climate. — The average weather conditions of each region make 
its climate. No other influences are so great in deciding what ani- 
mal and vegetable life may thrive in any particular region. The 
polar lands and many plateaus need only higher temperature to 
make them teem with vegetation. Desert soils are often fertile, 
and require only a sufficient supply of water to make them yield 
rich and frequent crops. In many regions man, not being 
able to induce a greater rainfall, accomplishes his end by 
irrigation. 

In the humid parts of the tropics excessive heat and rainfall 
give rise to the most luxuriant vegetation. Man has few needs; 
he supplies them easily, and his energy and ambition are little 
developed, because he does not have to struggle for existence. In 
the polar regions the struggle for life itself is very severe, and 



56 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

man is content if by work he can produce food, shelter, and suffi- 
cient skins and furs to keep warmth in his body. The Antarctic 
regions have no human inhabitants. In the temperate zones, 
where nature is the powerful ally of human endeavor, man reaches 
his highest prosperity and best development. Enough energy is 
required for success to stimulate him to the utmost, but not to 
exhaust him. 

Temperature and rainfall are the most important climatic ele- 
ments. Temperature decreases not only with distance from the 
equator, but also with elevation above sea-level, so that frigid 
conditions may prevail on the high mountains even in tropical 
regions. 

Invisible vapor, rising from water surfaces, is condensed in 
the cooler air above the earth and falls over land and sea as rain. 
The sea is the source of rain, and lands near the sea have usually 
a higher rainfall than the far interior of the continents. Prevail- 
ing winds blowing out to the sea from the land are dry winds ; on 
the other hand, when the winds blow from the sea, they often are 
saturated with water vapor; thus the Amazon valley, in South 
America, is drenched by heavy rains that the northeast trade wind 
brings. 

Climates may be grouped in several ways, according to the 
object sought. One of the best is that shown in the plate on page 
55, and based upon temperature variability. The zones are (1) 
always hot, (2) hot summers, temperate winters, (3) hot or cold, 
(4) always temperate, (5) temperate summers, cold winters, (6) 
always cold. From the point of view of temperature and rainfall 
range, there are three types : — oceanic or marine, maritime, and 
continental. The first is humid and has very little variation in 
temperature between day and night, or between seasons ; the last 
has wide extremes of temperature, and usually a low rainfall. 
Manila, Philippine Islands, is an example of the one, and eastern 
Russia of the other. Maritime climates have more temperature 
range than the first and less than the third type, and its rainfall 
is intermediate between them. San Francisco and New York, both 
good examples, are quite different, however; because on the Pa- 
cific coast the prevailing west wind is a sea breeze, increasing 
rainfall and decreasing temperature fluctuation. The prevailing 
wind at New York comes from the land. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 57 

The climates of the antitrade portions of the north temperate 
zone are responsible in large part for the vigorous civilization of 
Its nations; for man re(iuires the stimulus that comes from mod- 
erate variation of temperature, and from other variations found 
m the alternation of storms and fair weather. 



THE OCEAN 

General Characteristics. — The ocean is at once the source of 
most atmospheric and land waters, and the body to which they 
ultimately return. Its waters, enriched by the dissolved salts 
from continental rocks, brought down by streams, is saline, chiefly 
through the abundance of common salt, which forms three- 
quarters of the 3.5 per cent, of the ocean occupied by salts. If 
all the salts could be taken from the sea water and spread over 
the United States and Alaska, they would form a layer 1.6 miles 
thick. The salinity is somewhat greater in the tropics than in 
high latitudes. 

The mean depth of the oceans is not far from twenty-five hun- 
dred fathoms, or a little more than two and one-half miles. Be- 
tween North America and Europe the depth of the floor, known as 
the ''Atlantic Plateau," is about 2,000 fathoms, or 12,000 feet. 
Both in the Atlantic and the Pacific deep holes of more than 4,600 
fathoms have been found, and the greatest depth measured i^ 
nearly six miles (31,614 feet). 

We think of the oceans as basins, but their bottoms are really 
convex, and only at their margins, where they rise toward the 
continents, are they concave. Their shape is somewhat like that 
of a plate, the center of whose bottom is slightly arched upward. 

The arms of the sea are variously known as seas, gulfs, bays, 
and straits. The greater arms, such as the Mediterranean, the 
Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, and other nearly landlocked bodies 
of ocean water, are sometimes known as "mediterraneans." The 
smaller indentations, such as New York Bay, Puget Sound, and 
many river mouths are of the highest importance to humanity. 
They are the harbors in which ships carrying the world's com- 
merce may receive and discharge their cargoes, safe from wind 
and weather. 

The sea itself is the free highway of the world's commerce. 
Transportation over it is less expensive than transportation over 
land; and a single steamship will carry as much as can be loaded 

58 



60 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

into several hundred freight cars. Ocean winds transfer both the 
warmth and the cold of the continents. The vapor of ocean 
waters mingles with the air; and moist winds blowing over the 
land supply the rain that furnishes fresh water to all the 
earth. 

The Ocean Floor. — The floor of the ocean is very unlike the 
land surface. Weathering and ordinary erosion do not affect it, 
and the only changes it suffers, aside from the continual dropping 
upon it of sediment from the land, volcanic dust, meteoric matter 
and organic remains, come from earthquakes, volcanic action, and 
slow mountain building. 

Most of the floor of the ocean proper, beyond the continental 
shelves, is flat, and its slopes are almost imperceptible. But, 
beside escarpments due to earthquakes, and volcanic cones, there 
are two relief features. One of these form the *' deeps," and great 
basins like the Gulf of Mexico; the other is a series of broad, 
gentle-sided ridges and plateaus. At times in the geologic past, 
when the continents were very different in outline, some of the 
great land masses were connected by means of these arches, then 
high above sea-level. 

On the margins of the ocean floor, sediment from the land is 
constantly being laid down as part of the continental shelf. This 
has been going on somewhere ever since the first ocean was 
formed; and most of our sandstones, shales, and limestones 
originated beneath the sea. In the main ocean basins, where the 
water is deep and quiet, no land sediments are found; but 
instead various kinds of soft sediments called "ooze," com- 
posed of the minute shell-like coverings of lowly animals. With 
these oozes are sharks' teeth, volcanic dust, and meteoric frag- 
ments that happen to have struck the ocean instead of the land. 

We commonly think of the pressure found in deep water as 
tending to buoy up substances that may have begun to sink. But 
not only do large and heavy ships, like the Titanic, sink clear to 
the bottom, no matter how deep that may be, but light particles 
of volcanic dust, after they have become thoroughly water-soaked, 
descend to the utmost depths. 

Temperature. — The temperature of ocean waters varies both 
vertically and horizontally, just as does that of the air. At the 
surface, it is about 80° F. at the equator, and decreases to 28° F. 



THE OCEAN 61 

in the polar seas. Ocean currents so shift the water, especially 
within a few hundred feet of the surface, that the decrease just 
mentioned is not regular. Bays and seas, more or less inclosed 
and shallow, are often abnormally warm. 

From the surface downward the temperature decreases rapidly 
except in polar regions; so that within a very short distance it is 
scarcely above 28° F., the temperature of greatest density of sea- 
water, and this is maintained to the bottom. Exceptions are found 
in inclosed seas like the Mediterranean, where the cold ocean water 
cannot enter freely nor the local water pass out. Here the water 
has long ago become heated clear to the bottom. 

Tides. — Tides are shallow ocean waves of great width, which 
follow each other at intervals of about twelve hours. They are 
caused principally by the attraction of the moon, and to a less 
extent by the attraction of the sun. In mid-ocean the tide waves 
are about two feet high. But when the tide is forced into shallow 
water, and especially into river estuaries and bays, with narrow- 
ing shores, the wave may be from ten to twenty feet high, and 
occasionally reaches sixty-five feet. In certain rivers, like the 
Peticodiac in New Brunswick, Canada, the Seine in France, and 
the Tsien-Tang-Kiang in China, in-coming or flood tide moves so 
rapidly that the water rises in a wall sometimes many feet high, 
and rushes up the river, tearing light boats from their moorings. 
This is called a ''bore." The bore of the last named river is some- 
times 25 feet high. 

High tides follow as closely as possible the passage by the 
moon of the zenith, or highest point in the heavens reached by 
the moon on that day. AVhere the tide is delayed, because of diffi- 
culty in proceeding up a harbor, the difference between the time 
of zenith passage of the moon and of high tide is called the ** estab- 
lishment of the port." In New York Harbor this is 8 hours and 
13 minutes. The highest high tides and lowest low tides come 
when the moon is full, and when it is new, or twice a month. In 
the weeks between, the tidal range is less. The former are called 
''spring" and the latter ''neap" tides. 

In harbors that are ports, tidal currents are often important 
in keeping the bottom scoured, and in carrying away sewage. 
Where tidal currents flow around islands or through straits, a 
swift and turbulent current, called "rij)," may be formed in nar- 



62 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

row waters, such as the notorious Hell Gate of the East River, 
New York City. Tides are important to commerce. In many 
instances vessels must enter on the flood tide and leave on the ebb 
tide, the ports where they receive and discharge cargo. In some 
ports, docks at one level for high tide, and others at a lower level 
for low tide are necessary. Many of the English harbors are far 
more valuable through their great tidal range, because the water 
at high tide is deep enough for large vessels farther into the land 
than would otherwise be the case. Tables of high tide and low 
tide occurrence are distributed at many ports, and usually are 
published in the daily papers of seaports. 

Waves. — Waves are undulations of the water surface, usually 
caused by winds, and involving movements extending down into 
the water sometimes for hundreds of feet. Other waves are caused 
by submarine earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In the open sea 
the water does not move forward, but the motion is like that of 
shaking a rope, held at one end in the hand. The waves may 
mount scores of feet in height, although many of the stories of 
giant waves are exaggerated. The force of such waves, when the 
water strikes a ship, may be sufficient to twist solid bars of iron 
or steel several inches thick, to break massive structures, and to 
tear loose lifeboats. 

Approaching the shore, waves become lower and closer 
together, crowding so that their sides are steep and they look 
higher than they are. At last, their bases impeded by the rock or 
sand bottom, they topple over, or ''break." Their force then, in 
storms, may be very great. Massive masonry is ripped apart; 
cliffs battered by heavy boulders, and on sandy coasts large sec- 
tions of the shore torn away and carried otf, to be deposited else- 
where. Defense against such inroads, by engineering devices, is 
necessary on many soft shores. 

Currents. — The movements of ocean waters extend to almost 
every part of the sea, as is shown on the Flat-Globe. The great 
Equatorial Currents flow from east to west with a speed of about 
two miles an hour. The land masses split the Atlantic currents 
into great arms which flow north and south. In temperate lati- 
tudes the westerly winds carry the drifts of warm water far into 
northerly latitudes, thereby keeping free throughout the winter 
harbors that otherwise would be ice-bound. Currents from lower 



64 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

latitudes also furnish an abundance of moisture to the air, and 
the moisture of ocean winds falls as rain. 

The Gulf Stream is one of the most important ocean currents, 
because its drift, crossing the steamship lanes between the United 
States and Europe, is carried into northern European harbors, 
keeping- them free from ice. Similarly, the Kuro Siwo, or Japan 
Current, is an important factor in the commerce between the 
Pacific ports of North America and Asia. 

Cold surface currents from polar regions occasionally balance 
the effects of warm currents from equatorial regions. In the 
North Atlantic, the Labrador Current carries icebergs into the 
lanes of transatlantic steamships. In the latitude where cold cur- 
rents and warm currents meet, dense fogs are likely to prevail. 
They are therefore a menace to ocean navigation between Europe 
and America. 

Along the shores of the continents currents usually flow pre- 
vailingly in one direction or the other. Some are caused by 
dominant winds, some are eddies from such general currents as 
the Gulf Stream. They frequently affect shipping, often increase 
danger of shipwreck during storms, and have much to do with the 
molding of coasts by their effect upon transportation and deposi- 
tion of the debris torn from the shores or brought down by rivers. 



LIFE ON THE EARTH 

Life of the Earth, Air and Water. — Life is the mystery of the 
earth. Living forms reproduce themselves; other kinds of mat- 
ter do not. Living beings contain a large proportion of water 
in liquid form. They cannot exist without it. Warmth is neces- 
sary to life; therefore without warmth animals and plants cannot 
long survive. A few micro-organisms excepted, they cannot sur- 
vive a prolonged temperature that is materially lower than that 
of freezing or higher than that of boiling water. 

Two great laws govern all living forms, from the lowest one- 
celled plant or animal to man, most complex of organisms. The 
chief of these is nutrition. All living things require food. In 
part the food is to produce the necessary warmth ; in part it is to 
supply the elements of body growth, and the repair of waste. 
And in the end, when that mysterious phenomenon we call life 
leaves the plant or animal, chemical change of a destructive sort 
sets in, and soon the body returns to the earth, air and water 
whence it came. The solution of the riddle of death of the indi- 
vidual lies in this: — that the race may be peraianent and may 
advance, evolve, there must not be too much overcrowding. If 
the individual did not die, the race could not advance. 

Land life of every sort is governed by conditions of daylight 
and darkness, of warmth and cold, of the changes of seasons, and 
of the effects of various natural phenomena. All these in one way 
or another control the activities of mankind. 

Land life is most abundant in moist tropical regions. In the 
temperate zones where moisture provides grazing, life is also 
abundant, but the abundance is due largely to cultivation both of 
animal and of vegetable species. Life forms in desert regions 
are very sparse. A few species inhabit north polar regions ; very 
few are found on the antarctic continent. 

The life of the land is limited to the surface and a very short 
distance below it. That of the ocean extends down for a great 

65 



66 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

distance, many of the varieties living under the high pressure of 
such depths having strange forms. When brought too suddenly 
to the surface in the trawls, some of them explode violently, owing 
to the great difference in pressure between the air without and 
within their bodies. In the ocean as on the land, the tropics are 
by far the most populous regions ; but polar seas are by no means 
as barren as polar lands and ice. The air has its own types of 
inhabitants, but all except a few very low and minute forms are 
found w^ithin a few thousand feet of the ground. 

Distribution of Animal Life. — No lands are so desolate that 
they do not support a variety of life. Peary found flowers and 
grass, musk oxen and hare on the most northern bit of land which 
exploration has revealed to us. Stefansson was able to live on 
the products of hunting, on the most northern islands explored 
by him. The animals that are most useful to man cover the whole 
of the temperate regions, and their numbers are increasing in the 
tropics. The horse, which is found everywhere in temperate and 
moderately warm countries, has been introduced into the tropical 
Congo region. In parts of tropical Africa where the tsetse fly is 
absent, cattle from Europe are being successfully reared. Sheep 
are raised in most inhabited regions, woolless varieties being 
reared in hot countries. The range of the dog as a draft animal 
extends through the northern third of North America, where he 
hauls sledges, and in many parts of western Europe, where he 
draws carts to market. The hunting and fishing tribes of north- 
ern Europe and Asia use the reindeer as their means of trans- 
port. The yak is the conspicuous pack-saddle animal over the 
Himalayan passes and on the high plain of Tibet. The one- 
humped camel is the ''ship of the desert" in the northern third 
of Africa, while the stronger bactrian or two-humped camel is the 
beast of burden in central Asia. The donkey is nowhere else so 
important as in the countries of the Mediterranean, while in 
America he is chiefly represented by his progeny, the 
mule. 

The fisheries are the largest source of w^ealth derived from the 
wild animals. Canada and northern Asia are the regions from 
which most of the furs are derived, but the supply has been greatly 
diminished by overhunting. Civilized governments now protect all 
wild animals that are useful to man so that they may not be 



68 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

exterminated. There are few game laws for the protection of 
harmful beasts of prey, and most of the larger carnivorous ani- 
mals, such as the lion, tiger, leopard and others, are doomed to 
complete extinction within the next few decades. 

Distribution of Vegetable Life. — Most human occupations are 
confined to the regions in which forests and cultivable and grass 
lands prevail. The best agricultural regions are in the north and 
south temperate zones. Grassy plains of great extent in the 
Americas and in Asia nourish countless flocks and herds. Most 
of the wood supplies of the world that enter largely into com- 
merce come from the great forest areas of the north temperate 
zone which girdle the land surface betwe^ the Arctic Circle and 
the 30th parallel, making the United States, Canada and Russia 
the foremost wood-producing countries of the world. Vast 
tropical forests, especially in tropical America and Africa, yield 
cabinet hardwoods and dye-woods that are in much demand, and 
above all, rubber, which is extracted from trees and vines. 

The Ages of Man.— It is difficult to imagine a world without 
man, and yet he has inhabited it for so short a time that it is less 
than a day in the long history of the earth. He scarcely antedates 
the recent Ice Age, mentioned earlier. At first he was uncouth, 
extremely strong of muscle and agile of movement, and appeared 
to be little above the higher apes with which he competed. But 
the possession of a superior mind has enabled him to rise far 
from his origin, although the exchange of brawn_ for cunning has 
left him physically weaker. Modern man lives by his head, even 
though he may spend his life chiefly in manual labor. 

The relics of early man are very fragmentary, and it has not 
always been possible to fix with accuracy the date of their burial. 
But we have evidence that he passed through several stages in his 
advance toward ''primitive" man as we know him at the dawn of 
history. These stages we call the Old Stone, New Stone, Bronze, 
Earlier Iron and Later Iron Ages. Even in the first of these, 
man had learned to make fires, to paint rude frescoes in caves, to 
draw and carve animal outlines that are recognizable. He fash- 
ioned rude stone implements. Later he learned to shape these 
better and to polish them, and last came the reduction and fash- 
ioning of metals. 

The Races of Men. — There are many divisions of the human 



LIFE ON THE EARTH 



69 




THE BLACK TYPE 



race, and detailed study shows that some of them are distinguished 

from one another only by slight differences. By ethnographers 

they are classed as White; Black, or 

Negro; Yellow, or Mongol; Brown, or 

Malay; and Red, or American Indian. 

The more common classification re- 
duces them to three in number — 

Black, Yellow, and White Races, or 

types. 

The population of the world is now 

estimated at about 1,710,000,000, of 

which over 200,000,000 are believed to 

be included in the black, 700,000,000 

in the yellow, and 850,000,000 in the 

white types. 

The races of the black type are least 

civilized. The native home of the 

greater part of them is in Africa, south of tlie Sahara, and they 

are classed in the two subdivisions of Negroes in the north, and 

the Bantus, who inhabit the whole of 
the great tablelands of that continent 
south of the Sudan. The}^ are also 
thinly scattered in parts of southern 
Asia and the Pacific islands. The 
aborigines of Australia, the Papuans 
of New Guinea, the Veddahs of Cey- 
lon, and the Negritos of the Philip- 
pines are classed with the Black Race. 
For three centuries the slave traders 
carried large numbers of African ne- 
groes to the Americas, where millions 
of them now live. The various peo- 
ples of the Black Race are backward 
in establishing stable political or- 
ganizations; but those of Africa have 
shown themselves susceptible of great 
improvement. They control relatively 

the smallest part of the world's trade. 

The Yellow Race includes the Mongols of Asia, the Turks and 




LI nUNO CHANG— THE 
YELLOW TYPE 



?0 



GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 



Magyars of Europe, the Eskimos and Indians of America, and 
the peoples of the Malay and Polynesian islands. The Mongol, 
the most important branch of the Yellow Race, includes the 
Chinese, Japanese, Annamese, and other peoples living in eastern 
Asia. The Japanese and Chinese are highly civilized, and take 
an important part in the world's commerce. The Malayan peo- 
ples are widely disseminated over the Malay Archipelago. They 
include the Hovas, the most progressive inhabitants of Mada- 
gascar. The Tartars and Turks advanced from the steppes of 

central Asia and settled in eastern 
Europe. The Finns and Magyars 
were also Asiatic emigrants who 
settled in northern and central 
Europe. 

The White Race comprises the most 
civilized, advanced and progressive 
peoples of the world. It is divided 
into three great groups : Hamitic, 
Semitic, and Aryan. The Hamites of 
North Africa — Berbers, Tuaregs, 
Gallas, Somalis, and others — are as 
dark in color as many races of the 
black type. For the most part they 
are fanatical Mohammedans, and op- 
pose the introduction among them of 
western civilization. The Semites include the Arabs, Syrians and 
Hebrews. The Jews, a religious sect of the Hebrews, are scat- 
tered over the whole world. The Aryans are subdivided into the 
Keltic, Teutonic, Romanic and Slavonic peoples, who inhabit the 
larger part of Europe. They have long been spreading rapidly, 
and now occupy nearly a third of Asia. They hold political suprem- 
acy over Africa, and have settled there in large numbers. They 
inhabit almost the whole of Europe, most of the Americas, and 
the larger part of Oceania. The Romanic races of south Europe 
have occupied Latin America ; the Teutonic peoples of north Eur- 
ope have spread over North America and Australia, and the 
Slavonic Russians have occupied the whole of northern Asia. 
Teutonic peoples command the greater part of the world's com- 
merce. They have done more than any other branch of the human 




WASHINGTON— THE WIIITR 
TYPE 



72 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

family to establish government under which life and property 
are protected and business enterprises are fostered. They have 
borne the most prominent part in extending civilization and de- 
veloping natural resources. 

Man's Conquest of Nature.— All lower animals collect the food 
they need, and many of them are also humble manufacturers. The 
bee makes honey, the spider spins its web, the beaver dams the 
streams, and many animals build shelters. 

In his primitive state, man was much like the animals. He col- 
lected the necessities of life, and was a manufacturer on a small 
scale. Through his intellectual superiority he learned to fashion 
rude implements to aid him in his work. Animal instinct was the 
impelling influence that moved man in this primitive stage. 

Experience constantly enlightened man. It taught him how to 
make better implements, and helped him in many ways. One idea 
that gradually dawned upon him was that if he planted and cared 
for certain vegetable growths, they would provide him with more 
and better food than if he depended simply upon wild fruits, 
grains and roots. He began to till the soil. 

Each generation discovered methods for better tillage, found 
new activities, and invented better ways of doing things. Each 
bequeathed what it learned to its successors ; and so from age to 
age man benefited by experience that came down to him from his 
fathers. 

The Era of Scientific Progress. — At last man reached the stage 
in which he was able to inquire into the secrets of nature, and to 
make the discoveries that multiply the comforts and conveniences 
of life. This is the era of scientific development. Man's ingenuity 
is constantly discovering new ways of bending nature to his will. 
The rapidity of advance during the last few decades has been so 
great that scarcely any dream of further scientific achievement 
seems too wild. Our grandchildren may see a greater change in 
the mechanical instruments of civilized activities than has taken 
place since our own. grandparents lived their relatively simple 
life. 

INDUSTEIAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 

The great strides of occidental civilization, as compared with 
oriental, have resulted from the application of science in meeting 



LIFE ON THE EARTH 73 

the world's needs. All the world must be fed, clothed and 
sheltered. To do this with the least effort and expense, one must 
possess a knowledge of the earth and its products. Climate and 
soil determine what foodstuffs may be produced, and where they 
may be grown to best advantage. Geology points out where the 
minerals and metals necessary to humanity may be found. Geog- 
raphy teaches the peoples of each region regarding the lands and 
the peoples of all others. Astronomy guides the mariner on the 
high seas in carrying the products of one country to the peoples 
of another. Topography determines the land routes by which the 
world's commodities may be transported most cheaply and quickly. 
The engineering sciences have made possible the utilization of all 
the natural resources provided for man by a bountiful earth, and 
education places all these at our command. 



GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES AND 
COMMERCE 

Location. — Location is the greatest single factor in the success 
or failure of communities of men. With all other factors favor- 
able, but with a location that fails to provide for numerical and com- 
mercial expansion, that community, whether a village, a city or a 
nation, is doomed to an inferior existence. Location can be viewed 
from three standpoints — that of the community itself, that of its 
immediate neighbors, and that of the world at large. 

The first of these concerns the features inside the community. 
Thus, certain parts of a city are more favored than others. Manu- 
factures locate in one part, the wholesale houses in another, retail 
stores in another, residence largely in a fourth, while the financial 
center of the city may be segregated from all the rest. Real estate 
values have a habit of responding to strange internal influences. 
Transit facilities follow favorable rather than unfavorable loca- 
tion features. And finally, even the politics of the various parts 
of a community are subject to this influence. 

The second, or neighborhood phase of location, is large and 
complex. Switzerland and Bolivia are doomed to economic infe- 
riority because surrounded by other political units, with no direct 
outlet to the sea. Germany and Austria-Hungary felt themselves 
forced to an armed attempt to break the bonds that almost sur- 
rounded them, in part because of their short and unsatisfactory 
sea-coasts. On the other hand, the Scandinavian countries are all 
rim, and the accessibility and usefulness of the interior country 
are slight. Their outlook is constantly outward. Great Britain 
is the best example of a country at once endowed with a great 
length of favorable coast-line, and possessing the utmost acces- 
sibility of all her interior. Her maritime policy, her expansion of 
manufacture and trade, the location of her cities, even her politics 
reflect this influence. The United States, with its vast, accessible 
interior and its outlook on two oceans, stands supreme in the value 
of the location factor. 

In some cases location takes on the appearance of a chain coni- 

74 



GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES 75 

posed of connected links. Such a case is the succession of island 
possessions of a country that can be used for fuel stations for 
ships. And finally, location of a nation's colonies may be chiefly 
or entirely scattered in an unrelated manner. Such were Ger- 
many's African colonies; such are some of the colonies and the 
dominions of Great Britain. 

The point of view of the world at large involves the possibili- 
ties for world trade. A nation or a seaport situated in the focus 
of the world's trade routes has an unlimited apportunity for 
growth. There are still, in spite of our recent wonderful advances 
in transportation, "ends of the earth." The opportunities of 
Cape Town cannot be compared with those of Hamburg or Liver- 
pool; Guayaquil cannot he compared with New York. Inland 
cities, beyond water navigable for ocean vessels, have not the same 
present or future strength as seaports of the same country. 

Topography. — Topographic control of the various industries 
and of commerce is clearly marked. Grain crops are planted, cul- 
tivated and harvested on a large scale almost wholly by machinery. 
Farming by hand in rugged lands may be carried on in a small 
way; the large-scale farming of the world's chief food products, 
however, must be pursued in level lands where ponderous tractors 
and other farming machinery can be operated. About nine-tenths 
of the world's population live on lowland plains, where the soil 
is more productive and the labor of food-producing is vastly 
easier. 

The topographic control of transportation is apparent. In 
moving from the producer to the consumer commercial products 
must go by the easiest rather than by the shortest route. River 
valleys in rugged lands are almost always routes of commercial 
traffic; and low passes across mountain ranges have always been 
highways of world-wide importance. Khaibar Pass is the chief 
gateway between Europe and India ; and the jMohawk Gap in New 
York practically determines freight costs between the jMississippi 
Valley and the Atlantic seaboard. The natural routes of traffic 
are "lines of least resistance," and the world is determining that 
such routes once established shall be open to all the world on equal 
terms. 

Topographic conditions in many instances control industries. 
Powder is required in manufactures. Therefore the great manu- 



76 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

facturing centers are located where outcropping rocks have 
brought coal, iron ore, or other minerals within the reach of 
humanity. Thus the abrupt slopes and broken rocks of the north- 
eastern part of the United States have given to that region the 
coal, water power, and hydro-electric power. The coal fields of 
the central States and the iron ores of the Lake Superior region 
have made the shores of the Great Lakes one of the world's great- 
est manufacturing regions. 

Plains, then, are the chief home of man, the center of his agri- 
cultural activities; and where they border the sea are the most 
accessible links between the ocean, with its vast network of inter- 
national trade routes, and the interior, from which most of the 
raw and refined commodities for such trade must come. Plateaus 
are as a whole undesirable features, because of the relative diffi- 
culty of transit to and from them, and across or through them. 
Population is usually sparse. The plateau character of much of 
South Africa, where the highlands come nearly or quite to the sea 
and there is little plain land on which prosperous settlements can 
arise, has had much influence upon the slow development of the 
region. Mountains have their chief use, aside from a few that are 
valuable as health resorts, in providing a large share of the 
world's mineral wealth. As barriers to migration and to com- 
munication between peoples, they have hindered the development 
of the continents; but as barriers against encroachment by hostile 
tribes or nations, they have proved of value. Their climates, 
where not too harsh, have bred hardiness in their inhabitants; and 
the struggle for existence, when not too severe, has developed inde- 
pendence and alertness. 

Climate. — The activities of mankind are very largely controlled 
by conditions of temperature and rainfall. The density of popu- 
lation depends mainly on the productivity of foodstuffs and manu- 
factured articles. Deserts are too dry and polar regions are too 
cold to produce foodstuffs; therefore they are sparsely peopled. 
The rainfall in such regions as the Amazon Valley is too great for 
ordinary foodstuffs; the population, therefore, is confined to a few 
savage tribes. 

The grains, grasses, and meat are the world's chief foodstuffs. 
These thrive mainly in temperate climates. Rice is essentially a 
crop of the torrid and the warmer parts of the temperate zones. 



GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES 77 

The growth and production of these foodstuffs make these regions 
the dwelling place of mankind; and where mankind dwells, there 
also his activities must be. 

The civilization of today is centered in those parts of the world 
under the influence, during all or part of the year, of the anti- 
trades or prevailing westerlies ; and we have reason to believe that 
this has been true also in past ages. Moderate variation in tem- 
perature, rainfall, wind direction and barometric pressure, appear 
to be necessary to stimulate man physically and mentally to his 
best efforts. Economic uplift and control of the tropics must take 
the form of securing the best possible results without attempting 
to imitate too closely the methods that are successful in the tem- 
perate zones. 

Earth Resources. — Geology has determined the location and 
character of mineral resources, including the most important of 
all, soil. For the most part, where soil is abundant and of good 
value, the bedrock is too deeply covered to permit outcrops that 
might expose other valuable minerals. Thus the latter occur in 
broken country, such as dissected plateaus and mountains that 
have not been worn down too deeply. Where erosion has exposed 
the roots of mountains, there is a scarcity of economic minerals. 
Rather they occur around, or on the flanks of, old mountain centers 
and in the newer mountains that so often rim the old. 

Vegetable resources, wild and cultivated, depend upon topog- 
raphy and climate for their occurrence ; and the animals useful to 
man depend in their turn upon vegetation, for the domesticated 
animals are almost exclusively vegetarian in diet. 

Any country whose geographic conditions permit the develop- 
ment of only one of these types of resources is inherently weak. 
Thus the Falkland islands, whose per capita wealth is high, export 
only sheep, and can hardly be considered a strong community. 



EAW MATERIALS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 

The term raw material is used in a very loose way to indicate 
any substance that must be altered or changed in any way before 
it passes from the producer to the consumer. Thus iron ore is 
raw material to the steel smelter, who changes it to ingots and 
billets. Ingots are raw material to the manufacturer of building 
steel, or of wire; and wire is raw material to the manufacturer of 
nails or of woven netting. In the same way green hides are raw 
material to the tanner, and leather is raw material to the shoe- 
maker. Wheat is the raw material of the miller; and flour of the 
baker. 

Mineral Resources and Industries. — The remarkable develop- 
ment in the uses of iron and steel is a characteristic difference 
between eastern and western cvilization. Iron is one of the most 
abundant metals of the universe. It occurs in every part of the 
earth. To be workable, however, the deposits of ore must be of 
great size and nearly pure; they must be accessible; they must 
also be within reach of cheap transportation, and within a mod- 
erate distance of fuel and limestone. The extent of workable ores 
is not fully known. The chief fields in the United States are those 
of the Lake Superior region and the southern Appalachian Moun- 
tains. 

Hitherto, the ore deposits of Great Britain, Lorraine, Spain, 
and Sweden have produced the greater part of the iron and steel 
made in Europe. Not much iron and steel are made outside of 
the densely peopled regions of Europe and the United States. 
Most of the steel is used in making rails, bridge and building 
material, ships and in other structural work. The foreign com- 
merce of iron and steel consists chiefly in the shipment of rails 
and structural shapes to Africa, South America, China, and other 
parts of Asia, where railway extension is going on. During the 
World War practically all the steel was used in the manufacture 
of war implements. 

Copper has become one of the most necessary metals of the 

78 



RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 79 

arts. It is used chiefly as a carrier of electricity. Size for size 
copper wire carries tlie electric current better than any other 
metal except silver. Its tensile strength gives it also a great value. 
Most of the world's copper supply is dervied from the western 
highland region of the Americas — the United States, Mexico, Peru, 
and Chile. The mines of the United States produce about half of 
the world's supply and the export of copper in normal times is 
one hundred million dollars in value, nearly all of which goes to 
Europe. Nickel, so largely used to harden and strengthen steel, 
comes chiefly from one locality, Sudbury, Ontario. 

Aluminum, a few years ago worth more than its weight in gold, 
is now made so inexpensively that it is supplanting other metals 
used in domestic arts. Most of the metal is produced by electric 
smelters in localities where electricity is cheap. The output of the 
United States is smelted mainly at Niagara Falls and Pittsburg. 
Most of the lead of commerce is obtained from ores occurring in 
the western highland region of the Americas. The greater part 
is used in making waterpipe and in the manufacture of white lead 
for paints. Two groups of mines produce nearly all the world's 
supply of quicksilver — Almaden, Spain, and New Almaden, Cali- 
fornia. The mines of Idria, Austria, yield a small proportion of 
the output. Most of the world's tin is found in the mines of the 
Straits Settlements, Banca, and Billiton. Zinc is so widely dis- 
tributed that its commerce is almost wholly domestic. The Galena- 
Joplin district of Missouri and Kansas, and Franklin Furnace, 
New Jersey, furnish most of the metal used in the United States. 

Gold and silver are used in the manufacture of jewelry, and in 
coinage. The region of the greatest production of gold shifts 
from time to time. At present most of the metal comes from the 
western highlands of the Americas and from Transvaal, Africa. 
The western highlands produce most of the world's silver. Cobalt, 
Ontario, is also one of the chief centers. Platinum, the most 
expensive commercial metal, is obtained mainly in the Ural Moun- 
tains. Under the Czar, every impediment possible was placed in 
the way of either Russians or foreigners who sought to develop 
the deposits. 

Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are used largely in the pro- 
duction of heat, light, and electricity; and coal, converted into 
coke, is the chief smelting fuel. They all are essentially power 



80 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

fuels. The United States produces normally about one-third of 
the world's coal supply; western Europe about one-half. Most of 
the commerce of coal is domestic. In some instances, as Switzer- 
land, which is without coal, the commerce is necessarily foreign; 
and at times coal has been shipped from Australia to California. 
It has been found much more economical to ship ore to the coal 
than vice versa; hence most of the great smelters are in the coal 
regions. For the same reason, manufacturing plants are usually 
located in localities where cheap coal can be obtained. A nation's 
power is measured very largely by its resources in coal. 

Petroleum is now an indispensable factor as a power fuel. For 
many years its only use was the production of kerosene; at the 
present time kerosene is a by-product. Since the invention of 
the internal combustion engine, gasoline has became one of the 
principal petroleum products. Motor-vehicles are dependent upon 
it, and air-flight up to the present time would have been impos- 
sible without it. Some of the important railways and many steam- 
ships use crude petroleum for making steam. The aniline dyes, 
in the manufacture of which the Americans lead, are petroleum 
products, as are many drugs and perfumes. The foreign com- 
merce of petroleum products, therefore, has become world-wide. 
Within a few years, asphalt and the heavy residues of oils have 
become an essential constituent of the vast network of modern 
highways of Europe and America. 

Some mineral resources of great value and widespread use are 
seldom thought of in the same connection as iron, coal, copper 
and petroleum. And yet the sales value of their manufactured 
products may be very great, and they are as necessary in their 
way as are the others. Such is clay, and such are the limestone 
and clay that are used in the great Portland cement industry. 
Various salts, also, are vital to the life of the world, such as com- 
mon salt, niter or saltpeter, and potash, so much employed in 
fertilizer. Stone for building, road metal and concrete forms a 
large item in the output of many countries. 

Mining, Smelting, and Refining. — Most of the useful minerals 
require either reduction or purification in order to fit them for 
manufacture or use ; and all must be won from the earth by some 
form of mining. For some varieties open pits and quarries are 
used, but most mining is underground. Much of it requires great 



EAW MATERIALS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 81 

expenditure of money for excavation, machinery and operation, 
hence some minerals can be successfully won only by the employ- 
ment of considerable capital. Mines cannot be carried to an indefi- 
nite depth, but in a few places mining of metals is today proceeding 
a mile below the surface. 

One thing must be borne in mind in mining, and in planning 
the business part of exploitation of minerals. A mine is constantly 
using its capital. Minerals form slowly, and when a deposit is 
exhausted by mining, another must be sought. This requires the 
setting aside of an unusually large percentage of the profits, to 
purchase new properties. 

After mining, metals usually require smelting, even when they 
are found ''native " or in the metallic form. This process con- 
sumes time and fuel, and increases the expense of production. 
Many of the recent advances in industry have resulted from quick- 
ening or cheapening this operation, or from producing a purer 
product or suffering a smaller loss of the metal. The smelting of 
iron and copper ores is one of the very extensive industries. Some 
metals are smelted in two stages. Thus copper ore is first smelted 
into a ''matte," often in the mining district. This product con- 
tains a very high metal content, while the ore is always of low 
percentage. The heavy, compact matte is then shipped to some 
important industrial center, such as the New York district, and 
there "refined" into pure copper. 

A very different type of refining prepares oil for the market. 
The crude petroleum is sometimes sent many hundreds of miles 
through pipe lines, or is shipped in tank cars or tank steamers. 
The refineries are often located at great centers, where rail and 
water transportation and market facilities are good, such as 
Bayonne, New Jersey. Here the various chemical processes are 
put into operation that result in the wonderful variety of 
petroleum products, literally many scores of distinct substances. 

Soils. — The greatest and most widespread mineral resource is 
soil. Its varieties control success or failure in agriculture, and 
often determine not merely the amount of the crop but its kind. 
Some soils are exceedingly rich, but tempt the farmer to over- 
intensiveness of cultivation, perhaps without proper rotation of 
crop, and soon become lean and exhausted. The States of the 
Mississippi valley afford examples. Other types, like those left 



82 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

by the great ice sheets in northern North America, are poorer 
but far more enduring. Some soils are sandy and open textured. 
If not too coarse to be fertile, they yield crops earlier in the year 
than those varieties that have more clay. All soil is made by the 
decay and disintegration of rock. In some regions the products 
of these changes are left where they formed; in most, however, 
they have been carried off by streams, wind, ice, or the sea, and 
are now in new regions. The plant food from a million square 
miles of rock surface may be concentrated in the narrow flood- 
plain of a master stream. 

Soils quickly become poor with too intensive or too long con- 
tinued use of a single crop. Rotation, that is, planting suc- 
cessively several kinds of crop, may restore the richness of the 
soil ; but more often it is necessary to supply lime, potash, phos- 
phorus, and nitrogen by artificial fertilizers. Only rarely can a 
soil be renewed by nature, as that of the Nile delta by yearly flood- 
ing with water and silt. 

Irrigation and Agriculture. — In such parts of the world as are 
too arid for abundant plant growth, but have accessible water, 
irrigation may be practiced. The soil usually needs only moisture 
to make it fertile. Wliere the necessary water is carried from 
mountain streams and delivered by means of ditches, only a nar- 
row belt along the elge of the desert can be utlized; and of ourl 
own western desert areas, not more than five per cent, of the area 
can be thus reclaimed, despite the great scale of operations con- 
ducted by the National Government. Wliere the structure of the 
rocks permit, however, artesian wells can be driven, and irriga- 
tion by this means is now successful 250 miles away from the place 
where the rain or stream water first sunk into the earth. Many 
countries are practicing irrigation, and the crops from soil for- 
merly barren are often remarkable for their size and quality. 
China and India in the east, and the United States in the west, 
are examples. 

Agriculture and Land. — Extensive agriculture of a generalized 
type is characteristic of country that has not yet advanced far in 
its economic development, such as Argentina, Australia, and parts 
of Russia and the United States. Population is sparse, land 
values low. As the country advances, land becomes more valuable, 
plantations and ranches give way to smaller farms, and agricul- 



RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 83 

ture becomes both more diversified and more intensive. The yield 
of crops per acre doubles and trebles. The most intensive and 
varied farming is that of the truck-gardener in the vicinity of 
great cities. 

Foodstuffs. — The principal foodstuffs of commerce are the 
grains and meat, including fish, dairy products, sugar, and the 
beverages, mainly tea and coffee. Of the grains, wheat, rice, and 
maize or Indian corn have the widest use. Rye is much employed 
as a breadstuff but its commerce is not so wide as that of the 
other grains. Oats and barley are consumed chiefly where they 
are grown, although the use of barley in the manufacture of malt 
gives it an importance in commerce. 

The central States and Canada, with their glacial soils, and 
the broad valleys of the Pacific coast, are the most important 
wheat-growing region of the world. Ordinarily this region pro- 
duces about one-third of the world's crop. The grainfields of 
eastern Europe produce also about one-third. British India, 
Argentina, and northern Africa produce most of the remainder. 
From one-fifth to one-third of the crop is consumed not far from 
the locality in which it is grown. Most of the commercial, or 
export crop goes to the densely peopled regions of eastern North 
America and western Europe. Owing to the fact that wheat is 
growTi in many latitudes in both hemispheres, a great interna- 
tional trade in wheat is possible, for it can be bought somewhere 
every month in the year. 

The world's consumption of wheat is nearly 3,000,000,000 
bushels; and this is about the amount of production. The record 
world crop of 1915 was a little more than 4,127,000,000 bushels. 

Rice is consumed probably by a greater number of people than 
any other grain. The moist tropical lands of eastern and south- 
ern Asia produce most of the crop, and the Mediterranean coun- 
tries of Europe a considerable amount. The Gulf States and 
California produce a small percentage of the total. The export 
of rice is small in proportion to the consumption, because of the 
great number of tropical people requiring it. Asia exports it to 
western Europe and the United States. Maize, a native of the 
American continent, is now much cultivated in Europe. The 
world's production is about 4,000,000,000 bushels, of wiiich the 
United States produces three-fourths. Less than three per cent. 



84 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

is exported as grain, but a very large part of the crop is con- 
sumed by swine, which, in the form of pork products, move from 
the corn belt States of the Mississippi Valley to the eastcTn 
United States and western Europe. 

A considerable part of the world's meat supply is consumed 
where it is produced, but the plains of South America, Mexico, 
Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa furnish a large 
supply to densely peopled regions. Refrigerator ships and cars 
enable the shipper to deliver fresh beef and mutton to customers 
five thousand miles away. 

Sugar is used by a greater number of people than any other 
food staple. In 1815 the per capita consumption in- the United 
States was 8.4 pounds ; in 1915 it was 84 pounds. The East and 
the West Indies produce most of the raw cane sugar; the Baltic 
Plain and the beet-sugar districts of the United States supply 
practically all the beet sugar. Raw sugar is shipped to the great 
seaports of Europe and the United States to be refined. The 
world has become such a great consumer of sugar that, although 
the proportion exported is not large, the gross amount is enor- 
mous. The Baltic Plain and the East Indies supply Europe. 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and Louisiana supply most of the eastern part 
of the United States. The Hawaiian Islands supply the western 
part, with a surplus to sell elsewhere. Cane sugar is a tropical 
product; beet sugar is possible only in the temperate zone. 

Most of the world's tea crop is grown in British India, China, 
Japan, Ceylon, and the East Indies. The people of Europe are 
the chief tea-drinkers, and the greater part of the export crop 
goes over the Trans-Siberian Railway to consumers. Choice 
grades of coffee are grown in Java and Sumatra. A very fine 
peaberry coffee, marketed as ''Mocha," is grown in Yemen, 
Arabia. The world's crop is not far from 3,000,000,000 pounds, 
two-thirds of which is grown in Brazil. Although still known as 
"Rio" nearly all is shipped from Santos. Colombia, Venezuela, 
and Central America produce considerable crops. Porto Rico 
and Mexico furnish a small amount of very high grade bean. 
About one-third of the world's product is consumed in the United 
States, the chief coffee-drinking nation. 

In sparsely peopled regions cattle are grown mainly for beef, 
and hides or wool; in densely peopled regions they are kept chiefly 



RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 85 

for dairy products — milk, butter, and cheese. The value of these 
depends not only upon their food-qualities — they are among the 
most nutritious foods — but also upon certain principles known as 
*'vitamines" which seem to be absolutely necessary to preserve 
life. Milk will not stand long-distance shipment; its delivery, 
therefore, must be both certain and prompt. Butter may be 
shipped long distances and cheese, properly prepared, will remain 
in good condition for many months. 

Of the various fruits, the banana has the greatest intrinsic 
value. It is a food as well as a fruit. It is estimated that the 
wheat consumed by a single adult in a year requires about one- 
half acre for production ; but half an acre of bananas in a favored 
location will supply the necessary food for a village of one hun- 
dred persons. Bananas, about 40,000,000 bunches per year, are 
shipped from practically every port of central and tropical South 
America to the United States. The steamship that brings bananas 
at times also bears oranges, lemons, and grapefruit. 

The grape has been an important commercial fruit for more 
than thirty centuries. Wine grapes are cultivated in nearly every 
section of the warmer parts of the temperate zones ; and wine and 
raisins are among the widest exports. 

The commerce of garden products in densely peopled areas 
has become a business of world-wide scope. Better methods of 
transportation now enable the truck farmer to convey produce a 
distance of more than one thousand miles. The truck gardens 
of Florida furnish fresh vegetables to New England in February, 
and South Africa delivers its midsummer crops to London in 
the heart of the European winter. New York City receives its 
supply of potatoes from Bermuda, Florida, Long Island, Con- 
necticut, and Maine, each in turn. Similarly, grapes and straw- 
berries are on sale every month in the year. 

Each year the world's poultry product is increasing in impor- 
tance; normally its value is about equal to that of the wheat crop. 
The shortage of the world's meat supply in part is responsible 
for the increased demand for poultry products. During the 
World War eggs were shipped from southern Asia to the United 
States. 

Materials for Clothing and Shelter. — Humanity requires cloth- 
ing and shelter the world over and, next to the commerce of food- 



86 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

stuffs, the raw materials of clothing, shelter, and domestic 
articles form the most important items of commerce. Those used 
in clothing consist chiefly of wool, cotton, leather, and fur. One 
or more of them is used by practically every human being and 
in many instances the manufactured articles travel thousands of 
miles to reach the consumer. 

The world's yearly wool clip is normally a little more than 
2,250,000,000 pounds, of which more than three-fourths comes 
from Australia, South Africa, Argentina, Uruguay, and New 
Zealand. The United States produces about one-eighth of the 
clip and consumes one-quarter. The wool clip is not equal to the 
demand; and if it were doubled the whole amount would be used. 
In the United States and Europe the yearly consumption of wool 
has been as high as eight pounds per person. Sheep bred for wool 
do not furnish the best of mutton, and conversely those bred for 
flesh have coarse and poor wool. 

The world's cotton crop is about 22,000,000 bales of 478 pounds 
each per year, of which the United States produces from one-half to 
three-fourths. British India furnishes about 4,000,000 bales, and 
Egypt 1,250,000 bales. By far the greater part of the cotton is 
made into cloth in eastern United States and western Europe. A 
small proportion is made in Japan, China, and India. The com- 
merce of cotton is probably wider than that of any other textile. 
There is scarcely an individual in the world who does not use cot- 
ton cloth. There is no surplus ; it is all consumed. 

Practically all the fiber flax, of which linen is made, is grown 
in western Europe. Europe and the United States consume nearly 
all the linen cloth. Nearly all the linen is made in western 
Europe — much of it in Belfast. Linen industry in the United 
States has been a failure, and the flax grown here is used to make 
linseed oil. Japan, China, Italy, and southern Europe produce 
about four-fifths of the world's silk. 

About 2,000,000,000 pounds of hides are required for the world's 
leather, and these are produced very largely where they are used. 
The hides imported into the United States come mainly from the 
grazing regions of South America and Mexico; those required in 
western Europe are brought chiefly from Australia, New Zealand 
and South Africa. In northerly latitudes wind-tight garments 
are very necessary; and for this the pelts of fur-bearing animals 



RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 87 

are used. These have become so scarce that the prices are almost 
prohibitive. In several instances the slaughter of fur-bearing ani- 
mals is restricted by law, or wholly forbidden. In the United 
States the killing of l)ison, beavers, and fur seals is forbidden. 
Canada, Alaska, and Siberia are the chief fur-producing regions. 
A large proportion of fur is employed in making felt — especially 
that used in hats. 

Of the materials used for shelter and domestic articles lumber 
is commercially the most important. The zone of building 
lumber most available covers the continents mainly between the 
3r)th and the 55th parallels. The available lumber supply of the 
greater part of Asia and Europe has been exhausted. The chief 
sources for the future are Russia, the Scandinavian Peninsula, 
Siberia, and Canada. In the United States, consumption is double 
that of growth. Canada alone has an abundance of growing 
timber. Cal)inet woods, especially mahogany, are l)rought largely 
from tropical America and Africa. The supply of oak, maple, 
and birch is not so greatly depleted in the United States as is that 
of cedar. Nevertheless, the consumption of cabinet woods exceeds 
the growth. 

Among the world's non-mineral products rubber has become 
the most important. Motor vehicles must ride on rubber treads, 
and the consumption of these aggregates hundreds of millions a 
year. For many years the Amazon and Congo forests produced 
enough wild rubber to meet the world's demands. At the present 
time the rul)ber trees are cultivated wherever rainfall permits 
throughout the tropical world. Para is the chief shipping port of 
Amazon rubber, and is probably the world's chief crude rubber 
market. 



MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 

Power Development. — In early days manufactured articles 
were produced by hand labor or by man-operated machinery. To 
a great extent this simple stage has long since disappeared, 
although some articles can be shaped only by hand, and some 
others are still of better quality when hand-made. But quantity 
production demands machinery and the multiplication of units. 
One man now controls processes formerly requiring scores or hun- 
dreds of hands. To run this machinery, power must be applied 
on a large scale. Fuel is still the chief source — coal, oil, gasoline, 
or in a few regions wood; and the fuel more often than not is 
used to make steam which in its turn propels the machinery. 
There is much waste energy in this. The internal combustion 
engine, burning chiefly gasoline, is in many ways economical, but 
units of the size successful with steam are not at present pos- 
sible. In most respects the utilization of water-power, not directly 
by wheel as formerly but through turbines driving dynamos pro- 
ducing hydro-electric power, is the most satisfactory. It has the 
advantage, moreover, of being transmissible for long distances; 
but beyond 250 or 300 miles leakage from the wires is still exces- 
sive. Still, one large central plant can supply all the power neces- 
sary for industries over a considerable radius. At present no 
country having large water-power resources uses more than a very 
small fraction of its available supply; and, merely as a means of 
conserving coal, a much larger development of such power will 
become necessary in the near future. 

The use of the sun's heat and of power generated through the 
tides, although theoretically possible, has hitherto proved unprac- 
tical; and most inventions to accomplish this are either visionary 
or fraudulent. Animal power, used slightly in a few primitive 
regions, is a nearligible factor in the world at large. 

Varieties of Manufactures. — The United States Census Bureau 
lists more than 300 types of manufactures, each of which can be 
subdivided into a number more. Their variety is almost beyond 

88 



MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 89 

belief, a single town often manufacturing many hundreds of kinds 
of objects; and the complexity of engineering and of business 
organization necessary to furnish us with the articles we use in 
our daily life is bewildering. The state of a country's economic 
development can be rated closely upon the basis of the extent and 
variety of its manufactures for home consumption and export. 

Essentials and Luxuries. — Some things we must have, to live or 
to maintain our status in society, and others we crave but do not 
really need. These last are luxuries. But we are all different, 
and the luxuries of one person or nation or age become the neces- 
sities of another. Certain types of articles, however, are so 
widely necessary as to create vast business enterprises. Steel 
rails, machinery, vehicles for land and water transportation, cer- 
tain foods or food bases, and various types of clothing are among 
them. But raincoats, necessary in New York, are superfluous to 
a dweller in Arizona, and a suit of clothes is of little value to a 
Hottentot. 

Among civilized peoples, the line between necessities and 
luxuries is drawn partly by ability to purchase, partly by real or 
fancied need. Advertising has done much to create habits that 
convert luxuries into apparent necessities, but when one is under 
compulsion, he is astonished to find how many ^'necessities" he 
can do without. 

In general, the manufacturing of those things necessary for 
large numbers of people or communities in advanced countries is 
done on the largest scale, employs the greatest number of hands, 
and produces the greatest returns. 

Paper, Rubber, Leather and Clothing. — Some manufactures 
must be made where the raw materials are produced. Paper is 
often made as near pulp-mills as possible. But, while many manu- 
factures pursued this j)olicy in the early stages, depletion of 
near-by ingredients has made necessary a change of location; and 
power or market accessibility becomes more important. Thus we 
find today very extensive paper works at Holyoke, Massachusetts, 
where are power and rail accoimnodations but no wood for pulp. 
Very little paper is made from rags, and that only the highest 
grade. The demand for newsprint has caused such rapid de- 
forestation that either we must practice scientific forestry or we 
must find a substitute for wood-pulp. 



90 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Rubber articles are never made where the gum is produced, but 
as near as possible to market. Hence the huge development of 
all sorts of rubber manufactures in the United States, especially 
in proximity to the automobile industry. Leather articles, also, 
are not made where hides are supplied, but where machinery can 
be had best and where markets for the varied refined products are 
good. Special forms, like shoes, long centered in restricted 
regions like Eastern Massachusetts, where water-power was not 
necessarily good, but transportation to market was. 

Cloth and clothing are usually made in quite different districts. 
The former demands large-scale power application. The latter 
is governed by labor more completely than most industries, and 
thrives best in congested cities. This has made New York City 
the greatest center for ready-made men's clothing in the United 
States, and one of the great centers for women's clothing as well. 

Machinery, Shipbuilding and Metal Industries. — Shipbuilding 
must locate where ships can be launched and put at once to use. 
Hence shipyards are on tidal waters, great lakes, or navigable 
rivers. Much that goes into the equipment of a ship, however, is 
included under machinery, and may be made at a distance from 
the yard. The success of shipbuilding is largely a result of 
national labor or government aid policies. Of late, before the 
World War, the United States has been unfortunate in this regard; 
but with the supremacy established by means of governmental con- 
trol of construction, it should be possible to lead the world, not 
only in shipbuilding, but in controlling the trade that should fol- 
low our flag. In 1911, Great Britain and Germany surpassed us 
in their merchant marine. Now we lead the world. The policy 
of Britain has been to aid the building and maintaining of ships 
to the utmost, so that previous to the war that country controlled 
nearly one-half the world's tonnage. 

Machinery can be manufactured in a wide variety of locations, 
chiefly controlled by labor and market. In general it is an advan- 
tage to be near good markets, especially in making heavy ma- 
chinery other than rolling-stock, on account of the heavy trans- 
portation costs. Small articles, costing less to transport, can best 
be made where labor is abundant. The nature or breadth of 
market demand is also important; for some classes, for instance 
textile machinery, find their market geographically restricted. One 



MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 91 

of the most important factors in promoting machinery manufac- 
turing is the quantity production of interchangeable parts of 
standard character. This tends not only to increase output but 
to decrease price. 

The chief types of machinery are agricultural, land transpor- 
tation, and manufacturing; the latter including both power and 
tool machines. Metal manufactures include many small articles, 
like workmen's tools and firearms, and not a few of high cost, like 
jewelers' products. In all these the cost of labor far exceeds that 
of the raw materials. America is at a disadvantage in this class 
of industries, because of the high labor cost. To offset this, we 
have superior inventiveness, abundance of raw materials, and 
patent control. Where no patent protects the article, as is the case 
with many toys, the lower wages of European workmen win. 

Chemical Industries. — These include a large number of sepa- 
rate industries, whose aggregate value is very great, and whose 
control until recently was in many cases in German hands. Dye- 
stulfs are an illustration, and other coal tar products, such as 
many drugs, flavors and perfumes. In five years the United States 
has wrested from Germany the control of what was, in 1914, 95 
per cent, of our dye consumption. This has been accomplished 
by improvements in chemistry, aided by the absence of shipments 
from abroad. These dyes are now of satisfactory grade; but 
whether the industries can compete in price with foreign products 
later will depend upon our future policy. 

The raw materials of these industries are themselves manufac- 
tures. Besides coal tar, a by-product of coke manufacture, are 
especially sulphuric acid, soda ash, sodium nitrate, ammonia, 
potash. Some of these substances are essential for explosives 
used in mining, quarrying, tunneling, etc. 

In many ways the fertilizers are the most important products 
of these industries. Niter from Chile may be replaced by prod- 
ucts whose nitrogen is taken from the air; potash from Germany 
will be succeeded by that from Alsace and from our own deposits ; 
and phosphates will continue to be produced from both rock and 
organic sources, wherever in this country we can get them. The 
varied forms of the soap industry use chiefly organic chemicals. 

The Esthetic Industries. — A large number of industries 
minister chiefly or entirely to man's esthetic nature. The very 



92 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

extensive gem cutting and mounting, the work of goldsmiths 
and silversmiths, artistic work in stone, clay, rugs and carpets, 
paintings, and many other types, all together involve a large total 
expenditure of money by the consumers. Some of these industries 
are international, some wholly or largely domestic. 



MARKETING THE WORLD'S GOODS 

Principles of Trade. — Trade involves three primary factors — a 
need of something not now possessed, commodities to exchange, to 
meet the needs of others, and a means of carrying the commodi- 
ties to and fro. In addition, as trade has long since outgrown the 
stage of mere barter, modern commerce requires financial ma- 
chinery for the payment of debts incurred by both parties engaged 
in the trade. 

The differences, both of needs and of production of goods to 
supply the needs of others, arise from several causes. The first 
is difference of race, and of race habit. The orient and the Occi- 
dent will always differ in this respect; but as time goes on, this 
factor becomes of less importance. The second is difference in 
resources. The importance of this factor is increasing, because 
of the increasing interdependence of peoples. These differences 
may be of topography, of mineral wealth, or of vegetable or ani- 
mal resources, or favorable soil and climatic conditions making 
possible the cultivation of such resources. The third is stage of 
economic development. Argentina represents a stage passed by 
the United States decades ago. The western plains of this coun- 
try are at a stage occupied by some of the eastern States in the 
early years of our national history. The United States as a whole 
is some distance behind Great Britain. The needs and the goods 
offered for sale change as a nation or a region progresses from 
the stage at which it offers raw materials and requires refined 
articles, gradually to that at which it is a large exporter of manu- 
factures, and is obliged to look abroad for most of its raw mate- 
rials. It should be kept in mind that the per capita volume of 
foreign trade is no criterion of stage of development. The type 
of foreign trade is, however, a true index of stage. The strongest 
and highest places in the world's civilization are held by the 
nations whose foreign trade is of the most advanced type. 

Location of Industries. — The cruder industries are of necessity 



94 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

located with the raw materials. But the final refined products 
may involve many stages, for each of which the articles of the 
next previous stage are its raw materials. And these gradually 
approach the great markets, or are located in places increasingly 
accessible to market; so that the finished product, to be of inter- 
national importance, must be assembled either at a great market 
center or within easy and cheap transportation distance of it. This 
tends to centralize many such industries at seaports and along 
trunk lines of railway. Only when land for manufacturing sites 
becomes too expensive in such places do the industries move out 
again into the open country, but still along good communication 
lines. 

Financial Machinery of Trade. — Production of commodities in 
large quantity involves the extensive use of capital, hence large 
business organizations; and the merchandizing of commodities in 
quantity require equally complicated machinery. To finance the 
numerous transactions, various banking systems are necessary. 
Often much buying is done in a great bargain center, with the aid 
of the telegraph and cable. Foreign trade especially tends to 
become centralized in the commercial metropolis of the country, 
where capital in largest amount is located. Many banks and firms 
have head offices there, and branches in the principal cities of all 
the countries with which they deal. Today, New York is the bar- 
gain center of the world. 

Geographical factors largely govern the operation of these 
financial systems. Crop sales and movement in great quantity 
sends a flow of money or credit across the country or to foreign 
lands. Failure or scarcity of cotton or grains, especially after 
favorable prediction, may seriously derange the great money mar- 
kets. The credit of a nation in the world's estimation depends 
upon the volume and nature of its foreign commerce, which, in its 
turn, depends upon the productiveness of its mines, farms and 
factories. The possibilities of selling goods abroad may be aided 
or injured by the extent to which the peculiar nature of the 
prospective buyers is recognized and catered to. And to finance 
these transactions, most extensive preparations must be made to 
meet their banking and credit demands. Anyone who would suc- 
ceed in foreign trade must know economic geosrraphy thoroughly. 
Foreign exchange and the balance of trade with other nations are 



MARKETING THE WORLD'S GOODS 95 

miportant factors in the prosperity and broad economic strength 
of each nation. 

Geography and Advertising. — Advertising is a prime factor in 
increasing domestic trade, and to some extent foreign trade as 
well. It has its technique and its psychology, and it has come 
gradually to the extensive use of geography. The intelligent 
advertising manager or company now studies with care the geo- 
graphic conditions of the various parts of the field to be covered, 
and varies his methods of advertising to meet the needs, real, 
fancied or potential, of these various parts. 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 

For the development of modern commerce, proper transporta- 
tion systems are fundamental. These must insure safety to the 
goods in transit, permit reasonable dispatch, and provide through 
routing of the goods to their final destination. For the exchange 
of information regarding transactions, state of market, and many 
other matters, communication methods must be available permit- 
ting quick, or even instantaneous sending and receipt of messages. 

Highways. — Before the development of railways, highways, 
rude though they were, constituted the only lines of land com- 
munication. The main highways had usually a military impor- 
tance, both in European countries and in our own Thirteen 
Colonies. But for a long time the development of improvements 
in roads and streets has not kept pace with other advances, urban 
and rural. France has led the way in road-building, and today 
the United States is engaged in an extensive construction cam- 
paign. The development of the automobile, not merely for pleas- 
ure and for casual trucking but especially for express service, 
has created a demand for both extension and improvement of 
high-grade roads. To relieve rail congestion we are going back 
once more to the use of highways to an extent undreamed in early 
days. 

An equally critical problem is that of the quality of city streets. 
Millions of dollars are lost yearly because of delay in delivery, 
due to faulty pavements, and millions more are spent in patch- 
work repairing of streets improperly covered. Increase in vol- 
ume of traffic, and in the weight of the individual load and vehicle, 
demands new types of pavement. Trailers, especially, with their 
iron tires and hea^^- loads, have proved too great a burden. A 
highway is no better than its foundation, and most of the inability 
of various classes of highways to bear up under increase of traffic 
arises from impror)er foundation work. 

Automobiles. — The application of the internal combustion 
engine, using as fuel chiefly gasoline, has completely revolu- 

96 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 97 

tionized highway traffic. Steam and electricity are used as motive 
power to a slight extent. Developing rapidly from crude begin- 
nings only a few years ago, automobiles have reached a high 
degree of perfection, and a large carrying capacity. Motor trucks 
carrying from one to five or more tons are in use extensively in all 
civilized countries, for direct delivery of goods, in tramp service, 
and lately in the United States for service along express routes 
between cities. 

So rapidly are some of the newer countries developing, that 
motor roads are built in advance of railroads. One of them in 
Madagascar extends from the Indian Ocean to the capital, 
Tananarivo, about 150 miles in the interior, and automobiles are 
daily carrying freight and passengers. Automobile freight roads 
for long-distance trucking have been built in various parts of South 
America and Africa. Vast extension of the usefulness of auto- 
mobiles is the next great step in advance, in solving the problem 
of land transportation. 

Canals and Rivers. — The greatest of modern devices for short- 
ening trade routes, and thus reducing the price of commodities by 
cheapening transportation, is the ship canal. By the construction 
of ship canals, the length of many ocean routes is reduced by 
thousands of miles. Some of these enterprises, like the Suez canal, 
are the property of private companies, and were developed to 
make money by canal tolls. The United States government, how- 
ever, assumed the responsibility, too great for private enterprise, 
of constructing a great lock canal across the Isthmus of Panama, 
50 miles in length. By treaty the United States was given sov- 
ereign authority over a strip extending for five miles on either 
side of the canal, called the Canal Zone. This authority does not 
extend to Panama and Colon, except that if the Panaman govern- 
ment is unable to maintain order, we shall do so. Despite a com- 
plete monopoly over canal and rail transportation across the 
isthmus, the United States government is managing the project 
in the interests of the entire world, and not for profit. 

By shortening the sailing routes between the Atlantic ports 
of Europe and the Americas, and the Pacific ports of the Americas 
and parts of the orient, the canal has reorganized the trade routes 
of the great oceans. The route around Cape Horn and through 
the dreaded Magellan Straits is almost a memory. 



98 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

The voyage from New York to San Francisco, once more than 
13,000 miles, is shortened by 7,873 miles, with a saving of time of 
32 days for a low-powered steamer and 20 days for a full-powered 
one. To Guayaquil, South America, the saving from New York, 
New Orleans and Liverpool is, respectively, 7,500, 8,500, and 5,000 
miles. 

The changes made by the Panama canal in the routes to east 
Asia are equally great. The shortest route to the ports of Japan 
and north China from the Atlantic ports of North America is 
now by way of Panama. On the other hand, the shortest route to 
India, Burma and other points to the west of Singapore continues 
to be through the Suez canal. The Asiatic trade-divide between 
the Panama and Suez routes for the Atlantic ports of North 
America will nearly coincide with a line joining Manila and Hong- 
kong. From New York to Manila one saves 41 miles, and to 
Hongkong loses 18 miles, by the Panama route. The Suez canal 
shortened the route between British ports and India by about 
5,000 miles. The Kiel ship canal across Jutland enables vessels 
passing between the North and the Baltic seas to gain two days 
in time. The Corinth canal across Greece effects about the same 
saving of time. The Cape Cod canal saves the voyage around 
Cape Cod peninsula. In inland lake transportation, the Sault St. 
Marie canal in Canada, popularly called the ''Soo," is the busiest 
canal in the world. 

Domestic, and sometimes international, canal systems in the 
interior of continents are in some countries a great factor in reduc- 
ing the cost of bulk freight. Topography and national policy 
determine their success or failure. Thus the relatively flat areas 
of northern France, Belgium, Holland and the German plain 
abound in canals, with long locks. Between the upper Rhine and 
the Rhone river system a canal passes underground at Belfort, 
uniting North Sea and Mediterranean commerce. England has 
been less successful with inland canals, largely because of rougher 
topography. The United States has so far failed in canal develop- 
ment, chiefly because no means exists to insure proper division of 
freight between canals and competing railways. And yet, the ton- 
mile cost of water freight in the United States is only one-tenth 
that of rail freight. 

Navigation by rivers is very extensive in some countries, and 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 99 

might be made far more extensive in others. The United States 
has a length of 26,400 miles on 295 rivers navigable within the 
meaning of navigation laws, and could extend this greatly. Only 
5,800 miles can carry vessels of 6-foot draft, and only 2,600 miles 
support vessels of 10-foot draft. Railway traffic has grown at the 
expense of inland waterways in this country ; but recent rail con- 
gestion emphasizes the need for great improvement and extension 
of the latter. 

Lake navigation on a large scale is confined to the Great Lakes, 
the annual tonnage on which is enormous. This includes not only 
a great volume of domestic commerce but of foreign trade as well, 
especially touching at such ports as Buffalo and Rochester, New 
York. One difficulty encountered in river, lake and canal traffic in 
the northern States arises from the winter ice-blockade. The very 
extensive commerce on the St. Lawrence River is diverted for five 
months every year, to rail transportation. 

Railways. — In the United States railways are less than a cen- 
tury old, but the total mileage today is greater than the distance 
from the earth to the moon, and contains more trackage than the 
whole world possessed in 1860. The length of roadbed is 250,000 
miles — greater than that of all Europe and about one-third of the 
world's total. Railroads supply most civilized lands with rapid 
and comparatively cheap transportation. 

The most important railroads are those extending across the 
continents. They form links of transportation lines girdling the 
earth; the time required to travel around the earth has been 
greatly reduced in recent years. 

In 1918, more than 60,000 locomotives, nearly 2,500,000 freight 
cars, and 60,000 passenger coaches were required for the service 
of the country. About 1,000,000,000 passengers and 2,500,000,000 
tons of freight were carried. At the entrance of the United States 
into the World War, the government took over and operated all 
steam roads. In little more than one year 5,000,000 troops were 
carried on the railroads. 

The location and distribution of railways depends largely upon 
topography. Thus the pattern of the roads in the Appalachian 
Mountain region is very different from that on the Mississippi 
lowland. Engineers can construct roads almost anywhere, as wit- 
ness some of the wonderful roads in our own western mountain 



100 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

regions; but roads must pay, unless, as in some kingdoms, they 
have been built for imperialistic and strategic reasons. The loca- 
tion of railways depends also, therefore, upon freight, actual, in 
sight, or potential. In this regard two distinct policies of expan- 
sion have been followed. Some road systems are developed 
chiefly or solely for the benefit of terminal freight ; others develop 
wayside freight, often turning aside from a direct line to secure 
or to promote it. Of the two, the second is strong, empire- 
building; the first is provincial, selfish. 

Navigation of the Air. — In 1766 Henry Cavendish of England 
discovered hydrogen. This gas is so much lighter than air, that 
bags filled with it rise far above the earth and float in the atmos- 
phere. Up to the time of the World War balloons were used 
chiefly for meteorological research into the conditions of the middle 
air. During the war captive balloons rendered indispensiblc serv- 
ice for observation. The invention of the dirigible airship driven 
by powerful engines has made the navigation of the air by lighter- 
than-air machines a certainty for commercial purposes. The dis- 
covery by Frederick G. Cottrell of a practical method of separat- 
ing heUum, a gas nearly as buoyant as hydrogen, from certain 
natural gases, has made dirigible airships safe from explosion. 
Helium gas is chemically inert and, therefore, non-inflammable. It 
occurs in the gas wells in several parts of Texas. 

The successful operation of the aeroplane, made practical by 
the work of the Wright brothers after many years of experiment, 
was followed by rapid and extensive development of heavier-than- 
air flying machines in various parts of the world. The aeroplane 
proved to be one of the most important factors in military 
strategy during the World War. Airplanes have exceeded a 
speed of 150 miles an hour; they have also flown at a height 
of more than a mile carrying more than two tons of dead 
weight. Airplane mail service between New York and Wash- 
ington was established in 1918; and short-distance service was 
established in many parts of the United States and Europe in 
1919. 

Both airship and airplane flights have long since passed the 
experimental stage. For a time the necessities of military and 
naval service absorbed men, materials and inventiveness ; but now 
airships and airplanes bid fair to develop far greater usefulness 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 101 

in the arts of peace. Most of the great nations are cooperating 
in the preparation of middle-air surveys and the publication of 
the air charts required for international and inter-oceanic air- 
navigation. Air sui'veys for mail routes and for national com- 
mercial routes in the United States are rapidly approaching com- 
pletion. 

The summer of 1919 will be forever memorable. In May, the 
American naval seaplane NC-4, under Lieutenant Commander 
Read, gained for the United States the honor of the first aerial 
passage of the Atlantic Ocean; making the trip from New York 
with stops at Halifax, Nova Scotia, southern Newfoundland, the 
Azores and Portugal. In June a British military biplane made 
the first non-stop flight across from southern Newfoundland to 
Ireland, carrying only two men — Captain Alcock and Lieutenant 
Brown. In July the great British dirigible balloon, R-34, Major 
Scott commanding, flew from Scotland to New York without stop, 
in a few days returning; thus completing the first round-trip pas- 
sage of the ocean. 

Meanwhile the important matter of international agreement 
regarding the use of aircraft has been studied by the aeronautical 
commission of the Peace Conference, and has prepared a complete 
report covering the following subjects: — 

Nationality and registration of air craft; general principles 
governing the right of international flight; certificates of air 
worthiness and competency; principles governing flight over for- 
eign territory; rules to be observed on departure or landing and 
when under way; prohibition of the carriage of certain objects; 
the International Commission for air navigation; the marking of 
aircraft; certificates of air worthiness; log books; rules as to lights 
and signals, and rules of the air; certificates of competency, 
including medical requirements; international maps and ground 
marks; meteorological information; customs. 

Urban and Interurban Transportation. — The recent rapid 
growth of cities in area and population has caused a revolution 
of the means of transportation. The horse-drawn omnibus and 
the horse car are inadequate to the present demands of business. 
The application of electricity — overhead, underground and third- 
rail systems — has done away with other forms of traction. In 
1918 there were not far from 50,000 miles of railway operated by 



102 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

electricity in the United States, and many steam roads were 
operating their suburban trains by electricity. 

Surface street-cars are limited in speed, and rapid transit is 
impossible in crowded thoroughfares. Two hours are required by 
the ordinary surface lines of New York to reach some parts of 
the city boundary from the great business district at the south 
end of Manhattan Island. Business men cannot afford this loss 
of time; hence systems of elevated and underground roads, with 
electricity for motive power, are now in operation in New York, 
Boston and Philadelphia. In Chicago an extensive system of ele- 
vated roads covers the greater part of the city, and a subway sys- 
tem is under construction. The Interborough system of New 
York extends to every part of the Bronx, Manhattan and Brook- 
lyn, crossing East River and Harlem River by tunnels. The 
Pennsylvania tunnels and the Hudson Tubes connect New York 
City with Long Island and the various railway stations in Jersey 
City. Electric railroads, called "interurban lines," extend from 
the larger cities through many towns, with stations in the farming 
districts. The cars run at high speed, often on private right-of- 
way, and some of the trains are provided with sleeping cars for 
the long-distance routes. Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois 
have the most extensive and efficient high-speed interurban rail- 
roads in the country. Interurban service has been introduced 
extensively into parts of New England, New York and Pennsyl- 
vania. The trolley freight car is also coming into use, to the 
advantage of the farmers, whose means of reaching markets are 
thus greatly increased. As the cost of operation is small, these 
roads compete successfully with the steam lines, usually at a lower 
rate for freight and fares. 

Within and between towns and cities there has arisen a system 
of ''jitney" automobile lines, swifter and more flexible in service 
than trolleys. The cars range from small passenger machines to 
large omnibuses. 

COMMUNICATION OF INTELLIGENCE 

Mail Systems. — International mail service now covers the 
world, and a letter may be sent to any country in the Postal Union 
for not more than five cents — ^to most countries for three cents. 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 103 

The fastest ships are the mail steamships, and the fastest trains 
are the mail trains. Air mail routes between great centers have 
cut the time of letter delivery to about one-half that of the fastest 
mail trains. 

The Telegraph and Cable. — The electric telegraph came into 
use in 1846, about twenty years after the introduction of steam 
railroads. Practically, every city, town, and village of Europe and 
North America has its telegraph office, and telegraph wires extend 
over every country in the world. 

Ocean cables connect the various continents. About a score 
of cables have been laid between America and Europe. Pacific 
lines extend between the various ports and the Pacific possessions 
of the United States. 

The Telephone. — The telephone is one of the most important 
means of direct communication between individuals. Long- 
distance service is used to a large extent between many people 
in various cities for the transaction of important business, con- 
versations being held between cities thousands of miles apart, 
instantly transacting business, when the old methods of letters or 
traveling would require either much more time or long trips and 
great expense. 

Millions of telephones are in use in the United States in local 
service in cities and towns and in the open country. They are 
not only connected with the local subscribers of the particular 
exchange, but with many other exchanges; and any subscriber 
may l)e placed in communication with another subscriber within a 
radius of several hundred miles. 

The telephone service has become so much a part of every-day 
life that it would be impossible for ordinary business to be con- 
ducted without it; and to be deprived of the use of the telephone 
for a single day would entirely disorganize the routine of business 
and social relations. Small settlements and plantations in distant 
islands, widely separated mining districts of Alaska and other 
isolated countries, stock farms and ranches in the unsettled parts 
of Africa and South America, are now connected by telephone 
lines. They are used constantly by armies in the field, to keep in 
communication and advised of different movements. They are 
also used to report observations in connection with balloons and 
airplanes at high altitudes. The general service of the telephone 



104 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

to humanity makes it one of the most convenient and useful of 
all recent scientific developments. 

Wireless Telegraph and Telephone. — Radio-telegraphy, or wire- 
less telegraph, and telephony have proved of the greatest value 
in communicating between ships at sea and land stations. An 
''SOS" or distress signal from a steamship in peril at once 
brings fast scout vessels to the rescue. Several hundred radio- 
stations, most of them equipped with transmitters that will send 
messages one thousand miles or more, are scattered along the 
coasts of the continents. The great radio-station at Arlington, 
near Washington, communicates with stations in Europe. It sig- 
nals weather warnings and time to every part of the United States. 
It also warns vessels at sea of weather conditions. The globe is 
completely engirdled with wireless communication, more com- 
pletely even than by telegraph and cable lines. 

Wireless telephony is the latest means of communication. Its 
greatest advantage is perhaps that a voice from a central station 
may be heard in half a million receivers anywhere within a radius 
determined by the power of the stations. 

THE world's ocean HIGHWAY 

Development o£ Ocean Transportation. — In the history of the 
far east, lack of transportation has brought death by starvation 
to millions of people. Time and again famine has ravaged one 
part of the continent, when food was a-plenty in another. Egypt, 
China and India have many times felt the plague of hunger, when 
only the means of transportation was needed to carry food to a 
dying people. 

Only four hundred years ago deep-sea sailing was practically 
unknown. It was not until the voyages of Columbus and 
de Fama, that sailing masters dared venture a hundred leagues 
from land. Then, for four centuries sailing vessels commanded 
the seas. The Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic, 
carried a pamphlet that had been written to prove that a steam- 
ship could not possibly accomplish such a trip. That was in 1819. 
In the Nineteenth Century the Atlantic was six weeks wide ; in the 
Twentieth Century it was six days wide. 

Ocean transportation has become not only fast but cheap. When 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 105 

iron and steel were substituted for wood in shipbuilding, it became 
possible to increase the size of steamships; at the same time the 
cost of forcing them through the water was lessened by the inven- 
tion of better furnaces, boilers and engines. Between 1870 and 
1900 these improvements lowered the cost of steam power about 
40 per cent. Nearly four times as much steam power is now 
derived from a pound of coal as in 1860. With greater carrying 
capacity and much less expenditure per ton for propelling steam- 
ships, their owners were able to reduce freight rates, and could 
compete successfully with sailing vessels. Commodities that 
once were luxuries are now found in nearly every home. They 
are distributed so cheaply by present methods of transportation, 
that all can atford them. 

Most commodities carried from one nation to another go by 
sea routes. Water transportation is cheaper than land transport. 
Lakes, rivers and canals are important trade routes in all coun- 
tries, although they have lost some of their value through the 
quicker delivery of high-grade and perishable goods by rail. The 
leading nations spend large sums in the improvement of their 
waterways. 

Long ocean routes afford the cheapest freight rates. Freight 
charges are higher on large lakes than on the ocean, because lake 
vessels are smaller and navigation is restricted by small connect- 
ing rivers and canals. 

" Freedom of the Seas." — In times of peace it has been 
axiomatic that, outside the three-mile limit, the sea is free. 
Technically this is true in war for non-contraband goods, but the 
principle was repeatedly violated by Germany during the World 
War. One of the purposes of the League of Nations will be to 
insure perpetual freedom for marine traffic. 

The ocean carrier can choose its own route, subject only to 
weather and water conditions. It is not bound by highways, 
rivers, or rail lines. Yet the experience of mariners has resulted 
in the establishment of fairly definite lanes or paths between ports. 

The ocean carrier is free also to choose its terminal. Unless 
under specific contract and orders, the vessel is at liberty to make 
that port best suited to its purpose, by reason of better markets 
or better terminals. This stirs competition among cities in the 
building of terminal facilities; and occasionally a shipping com- 



106 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

pany threatens to change its ports of call or its terminals, because 
it has outgrown present facilities and the port offers no better, 
or because the port has fallen somewhat into disrepair. 

Sailing Vessels. — The rapid development of power vessels 
gradually drove the old-time sailing ship from the sea. "Packet" 
lines were given up or converted to steam lines. A rapidly dimin- 
ishing number of tramp ships sailed the seas, and by 1914 they 
had become almost extinct. The sudden demand for bottoms, due 
to increased shipping requirements and loss of large power ves- 
sels by submarine attack, momentarily revived the value of sail- 
ing ships, and many were extricated from the mud-fiats to which 
they had been banished. But this revival is only temporary, and 
in a few years, so great is the demand for speed in transacting 
modern business, they will again have disappeared. 

Wooden, Steel and Concrete Power Ships. — Similarly the 
wooden power ship became once more popular during the War. 
But the time is past when, for other than small tonnage, wooden 
vessels can compete with those of steel. The latter can be built 
far larger; they are stauncher; their relatively fire-proof char- 
acter is reflected in insurance rates for hull and cargo; and their 
yearly deterioration is less. Steel ships can be built in quantity, 
moreover, their parts standardized like those of automobiles; and 
thus tonnage can be added quickly. 

Concrete has very recently been applied to ship construction, 
apparently with success. Reinforced with steel web, rods and 
beams, it gives the slight flexibility required of every ship that 
it may respond to the stresses set up in rough water. It has the 
advantage of rapidity of construction, of lighter weight, and of 
lower cost. Whether concrete will last as well as steel, or whether 
deterioration of such ships will be rapid, it is too soon to state. 

Submersible Ships. — The idea of submarine navigation is 300 
years old, but in a modern sense dates from about 1885, when 
Holland's plans were first made public. Such boats, however, 
were extremely primitive and not thoroughly practical. 

In 1897, Simon Lake, a naval architect of the United States, 
built and successfully controlled his first submarine boat; and 
claims to priority have been made by him and by Holland. The 
idea was used by various navies, but the submarine was not very 
generally employed until the World War of 1914. It did not prove 



TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 107 

effective as a battleship, but its use by the Germans in destroying 
unarmed passenger ships made such boats the horror of the world. 
A world-wide sentiment has protested against their further use. 

It is evident that the limit has not been reached in the size and 
power of these vessels, nor in their cruising radius. But their 
naval use in war is distinctly forbidden by the League of Nations; 
and, except as blockade runners in war, they have no value as 
cargo-carriers. 

Sources of Ships' Power. — For most of the vessels of the world, 
especially in the merchant marine, coal is still used for fuel and 
steam for power. The vast yearly consumption of coal by the 
more advanced nations has induced some fear of a too rapid ex- 
haustion of this commodity. Moreover, coal is wasteful of space, 
and part of it is lost in loading and in firing. Crude oil, so much 
used in naval vessels and frequently in freight and passenger 
steamers, is more economical in many ways ; but we are even more 
uncertain of the duration of our petroleum supply than of our 
coal. Hence many attempts have been made to adapt the internal 
combustion engine to the large units required in a modern ship, 
and some of them are now using refined oils, especially gasoline, 
burned directly in the engine. The increase in efficiency by this 
means is very great. 



TRADE ROUTES 

Great Circle Sailing. — While the seas are free, and pathless, 
vessels not too dependent upon wind and current attempt to go 
direct from starting point to destination. On the open sea this 
is done by great circle sailing, as explained earlier (page — ), 
Deviations from this are made necessary by projecting land, ice- 
bergs, fog banks, current variation, casual storms and seasonal 
conditions involving storms. Distances between ports are calcu- 
lated on great circle arcs, or combinations of two or more such 
arcs ; and the expected time of passage is an average for the con- 
ditions met in the various parts of this course. 

Full- and Low-powered Steamship Lanes. — Low-powered vessels 
are assumed to have an average speed of ten knots ; full-powered 
ones of sixteen knots. Thus, on the same route, the former re- 
quires 67 per cent, more time to complete the run; or the latter 
affects a saving of 37.5 per cent, in time over the former. But, 
as the low-powered vessels are more influenced by currents than 
the others, they frequently are obliged to take a slightly different 
and longer route, thus increasing the discrepancy in time between 
the two types of ships. This may be highly important when time 
is a consideration ; but under many circumstances the slower ves- 
sel, far more economical in fuel consumption, can offer freight 
rates that compete successfully with those of the swifter ships. 

The Tramp. — Charter traffic, carried in vessels that have no 
regular route or destination, is the cheapest form of ocean freight- 
ing. The overhead costs are inconsiderable, as such ships are 
controlled largely by agencies, like Lloyd's in Great Britain. The 
proper routing, so as to keep vessels going, loaded and not empty, 
and to take due advantage of market demands for commodities, 
is a complicated business. Often the rates obtainable for tramp 
shipping are very low, on the principle that a rate involving some 
loss is better than idleness. 

The Liner. — The liner is the aristocrat of the ocean, even 
though it may be only a freighter. It has a home. Periodically it 

108 



TRADE ROUTES 109 

and the others of the fleet sail their course between two ports, 
perhaps witii stops at ports of call. Competition between such 
ships confines itself to rival corporations and ports. More limited 
in activity, less flexible in operation, the liner is more certain and 
is usually swifter. It takes on the whole higher classes of bulk 
and package freight. For this a higher tariff can be charged. 
Between the liner and the tramp, the relation is much the same 
as between the rail and water carriers on the continents. The 
slower carrier takes the heavy commodities, like raw materials and 
foodstuffs, and the swifter carrier, with its greater operating costs, 
takes those articles that will stand a higher tariff. 

Oceanic Trade Routes. — Every ocean has its routes — the chief 
ones are shown on the Flat-Globe — and it will be seen that large 
spaces on the map lie far from ordinary steamer tracks. The 
islands that may be situated in such areas generally depend upon 
an occasional tramp for their contact with the outside world. But 
here and there are islands conspicuous for the radiation toward 
them of steamer lines from various directions. Vessels may go 
considerably off their natural great-circle route to touch their 
shores. Such islands either offer irresistible bargains in much 
needed products, or they attract because of the fuel or protection 
they offer, or they may be exchange stations or freight clearing 
houses. 

Continental Trade Routes. — On a flat plain, rail routes can be 
direct and straight between terminals. But even such lines are 
almost certain to deviate slightly from their true course, to pick up 
the traffic that can be had within the breadth of a natural belt 
of influence. When to these factors is added that of topography, 
the distribution of rail lines becomes very irregular. Terminals 
are perhaps the most important features of a railway system, espe- 
cially when they are seaports; but terminals of minor importance 
will suffice, when it would be too costly to push farther. Thus we 
find the railways becoming less abundant where the Mississippi 
lowland ends and the vast, semi-arid high plains begin, and by the 
time the front of the Rocky Mountains is reached few roads are 
left to complete the transcontinental passage. Deserts are as great 
deterrents to passage as mountain systems, and the scarcity of 
railways in central Asia results from this. 

Development of Terminal Cities. — Cities at the termini of natu- 



110 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

ral trade routes have an advantage over all others, in possibility 
of growth and permanence. In large measure, the end of one 
freight route is but the beginning of another, and thus the city 
takes a profit from both sets of transportation operations. In the 
long run, no other cities have so great opportunities for growth; 
but, on the other hand, terminals are chosen in large part because 
they possess inherent possibilities of enlargement. 

Development of Line Traffic. — The commercial products of the 
world move in definite channels. A great center like the United 
States, or Great Britain, or Japan gathers its raw materials from 
almost every part of the world. They reach their destination along 
definite lines of travel — that is, along established trade-routes. 
When the raw materials have been manufactured into commodities 
they seek their respective markets in different parts of the world, 
again traveling along definite trade-routes. Steamships, railways, 
canals, and airship routes — many are shown on the Flat-Globe — 
are the carriers of this great interchange; postal service, the tele- 
graph, and the telephone are its chief aids. 

It is line traffic, after all, that stabilizes the commerce of coun- 
tries. Haphazard transportation would never raise either cities or 
countries to a high commercial level. Not only must the routes be 
fixed, but it must be possible to route directly to any point by 
combining the necessary parts of two or more routes. 



TRADE CENTERS OF THE WORLD 

Types of Cities. — In general, cities may be of either of two 
types, or may show the characteristics of both. Some cities are 
entirely industrial, a few entirely commercial, but the majority 
have both commerce and industry in considerable measure. Even 
then, one activity is usually subordinate to the other. Pittsburg, 
Pennsylvania, or Fall River, Massachusetts, are typical industrial 
cities, in which commerce by itself plays a small part. Hamburg is 
as near a purely commercial city as any of large size. New York 
is a remarkable example of combined commercial and industrial 
activity, for it is the greatest city in the United States in both 
respects. 

Seaports. — Upon seaports focuses the commerce from within 
and from without. The Flat-Globe brings out this point distinctly. 
All ocean traffic has its terminals in ports; much domestic land 
traffic reaches ports, and all the products for export. Imports 
must be carried inland by rail or water from ports. It is natural, 
therefore, to find rail lines converging on these ports, as well as 
ocean routes. It is natural also for ports, having a double and 
treble commercial stimulus, to grow more rapidly than inland 
cities. 

Cities that are Brokers. — Not only do ports do a large broker- 
age, or middleman's business in handling ordinary exports and 
imports, but they attend to the distribution of foreign goods to 
other foreign countries. In the past, much of the merchandise 
from New York, destined for certain South American ports, has 
gone via Liverpool. This type of city is called an "entrepot." 
Much of the strength of many of the world's greatest seaports 
arises from the volume of such business. 

Transportation and Inland Cities. — While ordinarily, no inland 
city can become so large as a first-class port, some are inherently 
doomed to small size or mediocrity; and some, although able to 
gain a large population, do not fulfill their early promise by con- 
tinuous and steady growth. Transportation has much to do with 

111 



112 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

this. Traffic may change the routes, as when the water-borne 
freight of the Mississippi was largely diverted to the shorter, 
quicker rail routes, and some cities along that river so far lost 
their prosperity that their population has remained nearly sta- 
tionary ever since. 

The United States and World Commerce. — The vast and varied 
wealth of the United States enables it not only to supply a larger 
share of its own needs than can other advanced nations, but to 
ship our surplus in great quantities to less fortunate countries. 
Before the World War, we were producing the following per- 
centages of the world's yield of some of the most important com- 
modities : — copper 56, refined copper 80, iron and steel 40, gold 21, 
silver 52, aluminum 52, zinc 50, lead 33, oil 66, coal 41, cotton 60, 
corn 75, tobacco 40, cattle 15, swine 45, fish 12, automobiles 80. 
These percentages have been increased by war conditions, until 
now we are almost in the position of being able to feed, clothe and 
house the civilized world. 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 

The official seal of the Isthmian Canal Commission bears the 
motto: "The Land Divided. The World United." That is a 
terse and accurate statement of what the Panama Canal accom- 
plishes. It divides a hemisphere, and, by opening a new and 
shorter ocean highway, brings the nations of the earth into closer 
intercourse with one another. In supplying this highway the 
United States has conferred a benefit upon mankind which has 
few equals in human history, the full measure of which time alone 
can reveal. 

Great wars change the map of the world by their victories, but 
few have made more radical and far reaching changes than will 
follow this momentous victory of peace — a victory for human wel- 
fare and progress. 

The Vision of Columbus. — The Canal realizes the dream of 
Columbus in supplying by the hand of man that "hidden strait" 
which he sought so eagerly in the firm belief that it had been 
created by the Almighty as the pathway of the seas to the Indies. 
If he were living today and could visit the Atlantic entrance to 
the Canal he would find it placed in an inlet of the same shore 
which he scanned so closely nearly four centuries ago as he sailed 
along it in his search for the "hidden strait." 

Mule Trail Transit. — In 1519, the first line of posts with a con- 
necting trail was opened across the Isthmus from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific. Transit by rudely paved trails and small craft over 
the lower portion of the Chagres River continued to be the sole 
method of crossing the Isthmus for nearly two and three-quarter 
centuries. 

An irresistible demand for better facilities arose in 1848 when 
the discovery of gold in California sent thousands of eager fortune 
seekers across the Isthmus for that state. Unwilling to submit to 
the delay of the long journey around Cape Horn, they took the 
short cut of the Isthmus, carried to it by packet and steamship 

113 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 115 

lines M^hich were opened between New York and the termini of 
the Isthmus trails on the Caribbean. 

The hardships which they endured aroused public attention in 
the United States to both the necessity and the commercial value 
of a more satisfactory method of transit. 

The Panama Railroad. — In December, 1848, three energetic 
Americans, under the name of the Panama Railroad Company, 
obtained from New Granada of which Panama was then a part, 
a grant for the construction of a railway across the Isthmus. In 
the following year the New York Legislature passed an act incor- 
porating the company. Construction of the road began in 1850 
and it was completed in 1855. There is not in the annals of rail- 
way construction anywhere record of greater persistence and more 
indomitable courage than the builders of this railway showed. 
They were the pioneers of the canal, and the hardships which 
they endured were far beyond any that the canal builders had to 
face. The road which they built pointed the way for the canal of 
the future and became the chief agency in its construction. 

The cost of the railway in money was about $8,000,000. The 
cost in life has been grossly exaggerated. A deathless "fake," 
which has been published seriously many times, says it "cost a 
life for every tie." That was a taking sound and is easily remem- 
bered and though often denied has a fair chance of immortality. 
Its absurdity is showai by the fact that there were about 150,000 
ties in the railway, whereas the total force employed in its con- 
struction did not exceed 6,000. Col. Totten placed the death roll 
at 835, including 295 white laborers ; 140 black ; and 400 Chinese. 

The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. — At the same time that the three 
American pioneers were beginning the construction of the Panama 
Railroad, there was in contemplation the building of a canal. 
In 1850 the United States and Great Britain formed what is 
known as the Clayton-Bulw^er treaty, in which they agreed to favor 
the construction of an Isthmian canal under their joint protection. 
The object of this was to hasten the building of a canal, but the 
joint protection provision was so unpopular in the United States 
that it made impossible any such construction for 50 years. 

The French Failure. — In the meantime. Count Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, conceived the idea of 
repeating his success at Panama. He formed a company for that 



116 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

purpose in 1879 and began work in the following year. He pro- 
posed to build a caual at sea-level and to accomplish the task in 
12 years, at an estimated cost of about $132,000,000. Eight years 
were spent in the effort, and about $260,000,000 were expended. 
During that time about one-third of the proposed canal had been 
excavated. A change of plan was made to a lock canal during the 
final year, but only a small amount of work was done upon it. Tlie 
failure of the French company in 1889 was complete. It had 
received from all sources $266,000,000, and every cent of it had 
been spent. It was placed in the hands of a receiver, and an 
official examination of its affairs revealed a vast amount of 
extravagance and bad management. 

Work of the French. — It is the undivided opinion of the engi- 
neers of the American canal that the French engineers are entitled 
to high praise for their excellent work, and for the courage and 
devotion shown in prosecuting it. They had to encounter obstacles 
which their successors were not called upon to meet. The mosquito 
theory of disease transmission had not then been invented. They 
did not know that both malaria and yellow fever were transmitted 
in that way and in that way alone, and could not adopt effective 
measures of prevention. The consequence was that their death 
roll, from yellow fever especially, was very heavy, and dread of 
that mysterious disease was constant and demoralizing. During 
the eight years of work about 2,000 Frenchmen died of yellow 
fever, and the total deaths from all causes among all employees 
is estimated by the best authorities at about 16,500. 

American Plans. — Following the French failure, events which 
were to clear the way for the American canal occurred witli 
gratifying rapidity. A new treaty with England, known as the 
Hay-Pauncefote treaty, was adopted which gave the United States 
the right to construct what the American people desired — an 
American canal, built by Americans and controlled by Americans. 

A Commission appointed by President McKinley in 1899 had 
made a report in favor of constructing an Isthmian canal at 
Nicaragua in preference to Panama, because the new French Canal 
Company, organized on the ruins of the old, asked $109,000,000 
for its rights, property and franchise on the Isthmus, which the 
Commission had valued at $40,000,000. Before action could be 
taken by Congress, the French Company consented to sell for 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 117 

$40,000,000, and the Commission reversed its finding and recom- 
mended a canal at Panama. In Juno, 1902, a bill was passed by 
both houses of Congress and signed by President Roosevelt 
adopting Panama as the route. 

That the United States made a good bargain in this purchase 
has been established beyond dispute. A careful appraisal was 
made and officially adopted by the Canal Commission which has 
built the canal, soon after the work was well under way, of the 
value of the work done and property of all kinds received from 
the French in return for the payment, and the total was fixed at 
$42,799,826. Of this amount about $25,000,000 was for that part 
of the French excavation — 39,000,000 cubic yards out of a total of 
78,000,000 — which had proved useful to the American Canal, 

Colombia Loses Panama.— Before work could begin at Panama 
a treaty had to be made by the United States with Colombia. One 
was negotiated, was signed by representatives of both countries, 
was ratified by the Senate of the United States, but was rejected 
unanimously by the Congress of Colombia, on the ground that the 
price stipulated to be paid to Colombia, $10,000,000 in gold and, in 
addition, beginning nine years after the date of ratification, an 
annual payment of $250,000, was insufficient. 

The authorized represetative of the Colombian government had 
informed the American government through its minister at Bogota 
that the treaty could not be ratified without two amendments, one 
stipulating that the French Canal Company should pay to Colom- 
bia $10,000,000 for the right of transfer of its Isthmus property to 
the United States and the other increasing the payment of the 
United States to Colombia from $10,000,000 to $15,000,000. Secre- 
tary Hay, for the United States government, refused to entertain 
these proposals. 

The representatives of the department or pro\dnce of Panama 
in the Colombian Congress gave public notice while the treaty 
was under consideration that Panama would revolt if it were 
rejected. It was rejected on August 12, 1903, and on November 3 
a revolution took place in Panama and an independent Republic 
was established. The United States government promptly recog- 
nized the new republic, negotiated a treaty with it for the con- 
struction of a canal, and in May, 1904, formally took over its 
acquired property and began work. 



118 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Yellow Fever and Malaria. — Before the Americans could begin 
work the Isthmus had to be thoroughly cleaned up, made a 
healthful place of abode. In this task the great discoveries that 
were made by a board of United States army surgeons in Havana, 
in 1900, proving that yellow fever was transmitted from one person 
to another only by mosquitoes of a certain species, were of the 
first value. 

A similar discovery, that malaria is transmitted solely by 
another type of mosquito, had been made in 1898. 

In January, 1905, the second year of American occupation, 
there occurred an outbreak of yellow fever on the Isthmus which 
lasted for the entire year and resulted in the death of 35 Ameri- 
cans. It was suppressed by the application of the methods pre- 
scribed by the discoverers of the theory — that is, vigorous 
warfare on mosquitoes and complete segregation of the victims. 
Since then there has been no case originating on the 
Isthmus. 

There can be no new case of yellow fever unless there be a 
victim of the disease for the mosquito to bite. Without a victim 
the mosquito has nothing to carry and is thrown out of business. 
With malaria the case is different. The victim of yellow fever 
dies or gets well and ceases to be a source of germ supply; the 
victim of malaria carries the germs in his system for years and 
is a continual source of supply. It is thus virtually impossible 
to banish malaria, but it can be restricted by the use of screens 
for houses and by large doses of quinine. This has been done in 
the Canal Zone, with the result of reducing the number of cases 
one-third. 

A Tropical American State. — What the American canal builders 
had to do on the Isthmus was to create a North American state in 
the heart of a Central American republic. They had not only to 
make the Canal Zone healthful, but to build dwellings for the 
canal forces, provide a food supply, and create a form of govern- 
ment, with school, court and police systems. Before work could be 
begun they had to assemble a working force, collect an operating 
plant and establish great machine shops to put the huge machinery 
of the plant together and keep it in repair. 

This was a new field of labor for American effort and energy 
and of really colossal proportions. Within three years it was 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 119 

accomplished and at the end of that period the work of active 
canal construction began with full vigor. 

January, 1907, was the starting point for grand assault on the 
actual task of canal construction. A lock canal, rather than one 
at sea-level, had been decreed by Congress. Two commissions 
had grappled successfully with the problems of preparation, and 
a third commission, composed mainly of trained engineers of the 
Army and Navy, was about to take charge of the great task of 
construction under the leadership, as Chairman and Chief Engi- 
neer, of Col. George W. Goethals. 

Character of the Canal. — The line of the canal across the 
Fsthmus runs through low land from the Atlantic for a distance 
of about 30 miles, when it strikes the foothills of the mountains of 
the Continental Divide. The foothills and mountains cover a dis- 
tance of nearly nine miles. After passing this obstruction the 
canal line runs through low land to the Pacific. 

From the mountains and foothills of the divide, there stretches 
away toward the Atlantic on either side of a broad valley a line 
of hills. These hills converge as they near the Atlantic until they 
are within a mile and a half of each other at Gatun. The valley 
lies between the mountains and the hills in the shape of a horse- 
shoe with its opening toward the Atlantic. 

Into this valley the Chagres or Gatun River and several other 
streams pour their waters. A great dam was constructed at the 
opening of the horseshoe, impounding all these waters and mak- 
ing a huge reservoir covering 164 square miles. When full, the 
level of this lake is 85 feet above the mean level of the sea. 

The canal itself is unlike any other in the world. It is in reality 
a great bridge of water, 85 feet above the level of the sea, extend- 
ing nearly the entire width of the Isthmus. Gatun Lake consti- 
tutes the larger part of it. 

To reach the surface of the lake, vessels must be lifted 85 feet, 
and this is done by means of locks, of which there are three pairs 
on each side of the Isthmus, making twelve in all. On the Atlantic 
side the three pairs are in series, like a flight of steps, and vessels 
pass from one directly to another. On the Pacific side there are 
two pairs at one point and one at another, with a small lake about 
a mile in length between them. 

Gaillard (formerly Culebra) Cut, which is the name of the 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 121 

passage through the mountain range, is an arm of Gatun Lake. 
It is nearly nine miles long, its channel has a bottom width of 300 
feet, and in making it 100,000,000 cubic yards of earth and rock 
have been removed, or nearly double the original estimate. It has 
a depth of 45 feet of water throughout, and its water-level is that 
of Gatun Lake. It extends from Bas Obispo, at the southern 
extremity of Gatun Lake and the valley of the Chagres, to Pedro 
Miguel where the first pair of locks on the Pacific side are placed. 
The water bridge, therefore, reaches from the Gatun dam, through 
the Gaillard Cut to Pedro Miguel, a distance of about 34 miles. 

The width of the channel in the water bridge varies from 1,000 
feet in the larger portion of the Gatun Lake to 300 feet in Gaillard 
Cut. The depth of water in the channel varies from 87 feet in 
the lake to 45 feet in Gaillard Cut, There are approach channels 
in both oceans, each 500 feet wide and 45 feet deep, extending 
from* deep water in the ocean to the Gatun locks on the Atlantic 
side and to the Miraflores locks on the Pacific side. 

By consulting the accompanying map it will be seen that the 
line of the canal does not run east and west, as is quite generally 
supposed, but from northwest to southeast. The Pacific entrance 
is 22.5 miles east of that on the Atlantic. This is one of the few 
regions in America where one can see the sun rise in the Pacific 
Ocean. 

The entire length of the canal, from deep water in the Atlantic 
to deep water in the Pacific, is about 50 miles — from shore-line to 
shore-line, about 40 miles. The locks are the largest in the world, 
and are all of the same usable dimensions — 1,000 feet long and 
110 feet wide. Ninety-five per cent, of the vessels navigating the 
high seas are less than 600 feet long. 

World Wide Benefits. — By opening a new ocean highway which 
shortens great trade routes by thousands of miles, all nations 
benefit; for the inevitable effect is to cheapen transportation and 
reduce the price of commodities. 

The new canal gives the continent of North America a con- 
tinuous coast line from Labrador to Alaska, thus securing for the 
United States control of the commerce of the Western Hemisphere. 

It reduces the distance between New York and San Francisco 
by 7,873 miles. It brings the west coast of South America, most 
of the large commerce of which has been controlled by Europe^ 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 123 

3,000 miles nearer to the United States than to Europe, with the 
probable result of ultimately shifting control to the United States. 
It shortens the distance between New York and Yokohama by- 
more than 3,000 miles, between New York and Melbourne by 
nearly as many, and between New York and Hongkong by 245 
miles. This will give the United States the advantage in com- 
peting with Europe for the commerce of Japan, and place it on 
equal terms with Europe so far as distance is concerned, in com- 
peting for the commerce of Australasia, China and the Philippines. 

Congress has acted wisely in decreeing that supply stations, 
under government control, be maintained at both ends of the canal 
by means of which coal, fuel oil, cold storage provisions and all 
other necessary supplies, as well as repairs, will be furnished to 
vessels passing through the canal at fixed and moderate prices. 
This permits vessels from European and other distant ports to 
reduce their bunker and provision spaces half, add thereby to their 
cargo capacity, and make valuable savings. 

Whatever else may be the effect of this new ocean highway, 
cheaper commodities for the world can safely be predicted. Direct 
competition along many great trade lines cannot fail to secure this 
result. By bringing the nations of the earth into closer relations, 
and by developing the commerce of one with another and enhanc- 
ing its value, the peace of the world will be more firmly secured; 
for the cost of wars, in disturbing and destroying commerce, will 
be an increasingly powerful influence against them. 

New American Merchant Marine. — When the Panama Canal 
was thrown open to the commerce of the world in August, 1914, 
there were then in the merchant marine of the United States only 
about 30 ships of sufficient size and capacity to use it with profit. 
But one of the results of the World War has been the creation 
of a new and greatly enlarged American merchant marine. 
Whether it is to be operated by the Federal Government or by 
private owners, or whether in either case it will be better able 
to meet foreign competition than in the past, time alone can tell. 

It is the opinion of most shipping authorities that no ship of 
less than 3,000 gross tonnage can do a profitable business through 
the canal, and some authorities place the limit at 4,000 gross 
tonnage. The average gross tonnage of all ships passing through 
the Panama Canal in the fiscal year 1917-18 was 4,275 tons. 



124 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTOEY OF THE WORLD 

There is slight probability that sailing vessels will use the 
canal. They would have to be towed from deep water in the 
ocean, as well as through the canal; and, in the case of the Bay 
of Panama, in the Pacific Ocean, they would in nearly all cases 
have to be towed about 100 miles before entering and after leaving 
the canal, for that bay is deep and sheltered and nearly devoid 
of wind during most seasons of the year. The opening of the 
Suez Canal caused a great reduction in the number of sailing ves- 
sels, and the effect of the Panama Canal is certain to cause a still 
further reduction. 

An Investment Ruined. — The opening of the Panama Canal has 
ruined irretrievably the Tehuantepec railway route across the 
isthmus of that name. This was 30 years in building and cost the 
Mexican government $60,000,000. It was opened in January, 1907 ; 
and although it has had considerable traffic, it has been an 
unprofitable investment, its gross revenue being only about 
$3,000,000. 

The chief customer of the Tehuantepec Route was the Hawaiian 
Steamship Company, which formerly operated a line of steam- 
ships from New York around the Horn to Hawaii and San Fran- 
cisco. Since 1907 the ships of the company had used the Tehuan- 
tepec Route, but they were forced to abandon it even before the 
Panama Route was opened, because of revolutionary outbreaks in 
Mexico. 

Opening of the Canal. — Water was first turned into the Gatun 
Locks on September 26, 1913. The canal was still closed to naviga- 
tion by the Cucaracha Slide, which had slid down and almost 
completely blocked the bottom of the cut in 1913. So little im- 
pression had the steam shovels been able to make on it in the 
next nine months that it was decided to turn in the water, and use 
floatins: dredges. These were brought up through the locks from 
both entrances of the canal. 

The first passage of an ocean-going ship from sea to sea 
through the Panama Canal was made by the Cristobal of the 
Panama Railroad Steamship Line on August 3, 1914. The canal 
was then declared open to the traffic of the world. During the 
first twelve months there passed through it 1,258 vessels, carry- 
ing 5,675,261 tons of cargo, the tolls on which amounted to 
$4,909,150.96. 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 125 

In October, 1915, the canal was completely blocked by two 
slides directly opposite eacli other on the banks of the Gaillard 
Cut, a little north of Gold Hill. Both of these slides were of the 
type known as "breaks," where the weight of the banks causes the 
underlying- material to give way. The bottom of the canal was 
thus pushed up, forming a complete barrier. 

Because of these slides and also because of the outbreak of 
the Great War, which made impossible the assembling of an inter- 
national fleet, there was no formal opening of the Panama Canal. 
It was reopened to commerce again, after the dredges had 
removed the slides, in April, 1916, and has remained open con- 
tinuously ever since. As soon as the United States entered the 
war, the garrison of the Canal Zone was greatly strengthened, 
and every precaution taken against injury to the canal, either by 
spies or an attack in force. The locks were guarded by infantry 
and anti-aircraft guns. Mine-fields were laid at each entrance of 
the canal, and a constant watch maintained by warships and air- 
patrols. No hostile attempt was made against the canal during 
the war. 

By facilitating the movement of troops, warships and supplies, 
the Panama Canal helped to win the war for the United States 
and our Allies. 

Panama Canal Traffic. — In the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1918, there passed through the canal 2,310 vessels, carrying 7,562,- 
133 tons of cargo, the tolls on which amounted to $6,439,083.99. 
Since the canal was first opened, there have passed through 5,881 
vessels, aggregating 18,991,013 net tonnage, and carrying 22,- 
901,226 tons of cargo on which were collected tolls amounting to 
$18,654,380.16. Of the cargo, nitrates furnished over 23 per cent., 
ooal 7, oil 5, and sugar 5 per cent. 

The 5,881 vessels that had passed through the canal up to June 
30, 1918, belonged to twenty-four different nationalities. British 
ships were most numerous, amounting to 2,302. American ships 
were second in number, 1,800; Norwegian, 533; Chilean, 263; 
Peruvian, 203; Danish, 184; Japanese, 155, and Dutch, 145. The 
only German vessels that had passed through the canal were six 
Hamburg-American liners seized in the Canal Zone but not issued 
United States registers until subsequent to canal transit. 

Competition with Suez. — The Panama Canal and the Suez 



126 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Canal are to a certain extent rival trade-routes. Both impose the 
same toll charges, $1.20 per net ton. The increase in tonnage of 
the latter was more than 70 per cent, during the 10 years preceding 
the war. Its total receipts in 1912, $27,300,000, were the largest 
in its history. Up to that year, its dividends to stockholders had 
steadily risen till they reached 35 per cent. There was a slight 
falling off in 1913, the receipts then amounting to $25,200,000. 
Under anything like pre-war conditions, and under the danger of 
loss of tonnage in competition with the Panama Canal, its 
managers may reduce the toll charges below the present figure 
of $1.20, and still feel certain of a handsome profit. This possi- 
bility must be taken into consideration in estimating the earning 
capacity of the Panama Canal. 

The closest competition will be in regard to commerce with 
Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China and the Philippines. So 
far as distance is concerned, the two canals are on equal terms 
in regard to that traffic. Under existing conditions, in spite of 
the fact that distance has been against the United States, our 
country has had a fair share of the great commerce of Australia 
and New Zealand. In 1910 the value of that share was nearly 
$50,000,000 — consisting of the export of American manufactures 
to those countries, and the import from them of wool, hides and 
other raw materials. Australia's commerce amounts to $130 per 
inhabitant, and that of New Zealand to $170 per inhabitant, or 
five times that of the United States per inhabitant. 

The United States has had its fair share in this great com- 
merce in spite of its distance handicap. What must be the effect 
when the handicap is removed! It is only necessary to cite the 
distances saved by the Panama Canal to show that there can be 
only one answer to this question. 

The distance from New York to Adelaide via the Panama 
Canal will be 1,746 miles less than via the Cape of Good Hope. 
To Melbourne, the reduction will be 2,770 miles and to Sydney 
3,932 miles. For the voyage between New York and Sydney ves- 
sels of 10 knots speed can save 15.8 days. A calculation has 
been made of the fuel expenses of a 10.25-knot freight steamer 
whose average daily coal consumption at sea is 38 tons. This 
vessel would save about $3,500 in coal expenses by taking the 
Panama route instead of one around the Cape of Good Hope, on a 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 127 

round-trip voyage between New York and Adelaide. For a round- 
trip voyage between New York and Sydney, the fuel expenses via 
Panama will be about $6,230 less than by way of the Cape of Good 
Hope. In making this and other calculations, the 1912 contract 
prices for coal are taken — since then prices have steadily risen 
and the saving will be correspondingly greater. 

Coal Prices. — Coal is sold to vessels in passing through the 
canal at cost plus 25 per cent. The prices rose from $5,00 and 
$5.50 in 1912 to $8.00 and $9.50 in 1917, at Colon and Cristobal at 
one end of the canal and Balboa on the other. In 1912 the con- 
tract prices for Welsh coal at Port Said were 15 to 24 per cent, 
higher than the Panama prices. The action of Congress, in 
decreeing that coal shall be supplied by the United States Gov- 
ernment at both ends of the canal at reasonable prices, makes 
certain the permanence of this great inducement for vessels 
engaged in far-eastern commerce to use the Panama route. 

Commercial Advantages. — An examination of the possibilities 
of increased commerce which the shortened line of travel secures, 
shows that all sections of the United States are benefited thereby. 

The canal gives the southern States for the first time a direct 
route for their chief product, cotton, to the markets of the far 
east. Heretofore their shipments have gone partly by rail to 
San Francisco, partly by vessels around the Horn, but mainly by 
way of New York and the Suez Canal. All this will be changed. 
The Gulf ports are nearer to the Colon entrance of the canal than 
New York is by from 500 to 760 miles. They thus have an advan- 
tage over eastern ports in the shipment of products to the orient. 
Japan and China have for years been large purchasers of raw 
cotton and cotton goods, and the shorter route is certain to make 
these countries larger consumers because of the reduction in price 
made possible by lower freight rates. 

The iron and steel industries of the south, which have shown 
such remarkable growth, the lumber business, its forest products 
—turpentine, resin, tar, etc., — the fertilizing industry, all are 
certain to be greatly benefited for the same reason. 

The commercial importance of the Gulf ports will be greatly 
increased by the use of the canal. All points south and west of 
Lake Superior, Northern Michigan, Lake ^Michigan, and a line 
drawn from Chicago through Indianapolis, Frankfort, Ky., and 



128 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

on to Charleston, are nearer to New Orleans and to several Gulf 
ports than to New York. Distance is a powerful, although not a 
controlling factor, in determining traffic routes ; and there can be 
no question that the Gulf ports, through their ability to bring the 
railway car and the steamer side by side at terminals, in addition 
to their ability to assure a shorter and quicker passage, will add 
enormously to their commercial importance. 

The northeastern section of the United States ranks first in 
manufacture and foreign commerce. It has a large foreign trade 
in manufactured products, made partly from domestic and partly 
from imported materials. A portion of the imports comes from 
tropical and south temperate latitudes of the Atlantic, Pacific and 
Indian Oceans — nitrate of soda from Chile; lumber and grain 
from the Pacific Coast; wool, meats and hides from Australia; 
teas, silks and mattings from the orient; sugar, rice, jute, hemp, 
vegetable oils and gums from the British and Dutch East Indies 
and Oceania. Europe secured a nearer market for raw materials 
by means of the Suez Canal. Our American manufacturers will 
obtain the same privilege, in equal measure, by means of the 
Panama Canal. The gain for American manufacturers cannot fail 
to go far in putting them on an equal footing w^ith their European 
competitors. 

The twelve States of the central west are situated from 500 
to 1,500 miles from the ocean. The trade which the Panama Canal 
may bring to them will, on an average, be moved nearly 1,000 
miles by railroad. While the most important industrial resources 
of the section taken as a whole are agricultural, there are also 
large manufacturing interests in several of the States, large coal 
fields, oil and natural gas wells, and forests. 

The opening of the canal, by emphasizing the commercial im- 
portance of the Gulf ports and giving fresh impetus to the work 
of improving the great river systems, will give to the central west 
the opportunity to choose between the Gulf and Atlantic routes of 
shipment, and the competition thus instigated will quicken indus- 
trial activity and secure better transportation facilities. 

In many ways the opening of the canal will be of very great 
benefit to all the States of the Pacific Coast. A cut of 7,873 
nautical miles in a total distance of 13,135, could not have any 
other effect. 



THE PANAMA ISTHMIAN CANAL 129 

Their great interests, grain, lumber, horticulture, fisheries and 
mining, will all be benefited. Their wheat, barley, lumber and 
non-perishable food products — nuts, raisins, olives and canned 
fruits — have previously gone around the Horn to the eastern 
States and Europe. The shipment of fresh fruit for long dis- 
tances, while likely to continue to be made largely by rail, can, 
with modern refrigerating facilities, readily be shipped in steadily 
increasing amounts by vessels, as the time of transit through the 
canal is diminished with the advancing speed of steamships. 

The general effect of the canal upon the people of the Pacific 
Coast will be to enable them to buy more cheaplj^, and to carry 
on a larger trade, both domestic and foreign. The northern ports 
will become the natural gateways for the export trade of Idaho, 
Montana and Wyoming, and for commerce with British Columbia. 

It is regarded as certain that the canal will greatly increase 
the volume of coastwise trade of the United States. The combined 
tonnage of American ships at present engaged in that trade on 
the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific seaboards exceeds 3,500,000. Dur- 
ing the past decade the increase has been 38 per cent. It is a large 
and healthily increasing business, and its operators look for a 
very considerable addition to its fleet of ships to handle the larger 
volume of traffic which the canal will bring. 

A Credit to the Nation. — The Panama Canal is one of the 
great engineering feats of the ages. It was completed ahead of 
the time fixed, for several million dollars less than the estimated 
cost, in a manner so excellent as to defy criticism, and without 
scandal of any sort. It was a great administrative as well as a 
great engineering task, for the expenditure of $375,000,000 had 
to be regulated and guarded and a colony of 60,000 souls — the 
number of the canal workers and their dependents — had to be 
governed. 

It is the work of Americans, and the manner of its accomplish- 
ment has brought honor to the nation throughout the world. 



THE SUEZ CANAL 

Early Attempts. — The Panama Canal has been thought of and 
talked about for nearly four hundred years, but the first Suez 
Canal was already finished and in use four hundred years before 
the time of Solomon. The historian Strabo declared that Seti, 
father of Eameses the Great, dug a ditch fifty-seven miles long 
and wide enough for the largest vessels of that day — fourteen hun- 
dred years before Christ — from Bubastis on the Pelusiac branch 
of the Nile, to Hieropolis on the Bitter Lakes, then the head of 
the Gulf of Suez, at the northern end of the Red Sea. In the 
course of centuries, this became filled with sand; and eight hun- 
dred years later, according to Herodotus, Necho II attempted to 
clear it; but desisted after the lives of one hundred and twenty 
thousand men had been sacrificed in the desert, because of a 
prophecy that, should the canal be completed, Egypt would fall 
into the hands of the barbarians. 

Likewise the Persian Darius, who took up the work a hundred 
years later, abandoned it because the engineering experts of the 
period feared that the land would be flooded. But Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, in B.C. 285, built a canal from the Nile to Arsinoe, not far 
from the present Suez, which in two centuries largely filled up. 
Roman engineers, under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, 
cleared and repaired the old waterway; but when the Muham- 
madans under Amrou conquered Egypt, they found the canal once 
more blocked and, after vainly trying to keep it open, abandoned 
it again to the drifting sands of the desert. 

Soon after his conquest of Egypt, in 1798, Napoleon ordered 
his engineers to make surveys for a direct canal from the Mediter- 
ranean to the Red Sea. They did so, but made the erroneous 
report that the level of the Red Sea was some thirty feet above 
that of the Mediterranean. 

Lieutenant Waghorn, of the Royal Navy, made surveys of his 
own; but his desire for a canal was over-ruled by the British rep- 
resentative in Egypt. 

130 



THE SUEZ CANAL 131 

Interest of Lesseps. — ^These facts were well known to Ferdinand 
de Lesseps, who had been a diplomatic representative of France 
in Egypt, as had also his father before him. 

At fifty years of age he had had no training whatever in 
technical engineering. But he was a consummate diplomat and 
financier, and, while the engineering problems of the Suez Canal 
were childishly simple, the diplomatic and financial difficulties 
wore very great. In the end he overcame diplomatic and financial 
difficulties, especially British opposition, and the "big ditch" was 
formally opened in 1859. 

The total length of the Suez Canal is just under 100 miles, or 
twice that of the Panama Canal. Its cost is difficult to state 
exactly. After a stormy history of excavation of sand and rock, 
and of Egyptian bankruptcy and rebellion, the canal was pur- 
chased by Great Britain. 

Effects of the Canal. — With several thousand British regulars 
in Egypt, the strong fortresses of Malta in the Mediterranean and 
Aden and Perim in the Red Sea, Great Britain has little cause to 
fear that any other power will seize Suez and cut her off from 
India. Moreover, by an international convention in 1888, the lead- 
ing nations of the earth, including Great Britain and the United 
States, agreed to the neutralization of the Suez Canal. 

Troops from India, Australia and New Zealand, coolie la- 
borers, and supplies from the entire East were brought to Europe 
through the Suez Canal during the World War, and helped 
immeasurably to bring it to a victorious end. 

Since its opening, the canal has been frequently widened and 
deepened, to keep pace with the increased number and growing 
size of the ships that pass through it. It is now 35 feet deep and 
has a bottom width of 135 feet. It has always been necessary, 
whenever two large vessels meet in the canal, for one to turn into 
the nearest dock or siding dug out of the side of the canal at 
frequent intervals. There it ties up to the bank while the other 
ship passes. 

This, however, is not true of the Bitter Lakes, where ships can 
steam as freely as if in the open sea or on the Gatun Lake section 
of the Panama Canal. Except in the Bitter Lakes, ships passing 
through the Suez Canal cannot steam faster than four knots an 
hour, for fear of bringing down the sandy banks with the wash 



132 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

from their propellers. Electric searchlights, first introduced in 
1887, make night navigation possible and double the efficiency of 
the canal. Dredges are constantly at work keeping the entrances 
clear of silt, and removing sand and mud that continually accumu- 
lates in the channel. 

The tolls on a vessel passing through the Suez Canal amount 
to $1.20 a ton, and $2 a head for adult passengers, exclusive of 
the crew. 

It was anticipated that the opening of the Suez Canal would 
do much toward restoring the old commercial supremacy of the 
Mediterranean countries. But the country that was most benefited 
was the one that had done most to delay the building of the 
canal — Great Britain. As long as the trade between Europe and 
the far east w^as carried on by way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
sailing ships could hold their own with steamers, for there were 
few coaling stations on the African coasts, and too much cargo 
room had to be sacrificed to bunker capacity. But the opening 
of the Suez Canal, by shortening trade-routes, made the iron 
screw-steamer more profitable than the sailing ship; and Eng- 
land had the necessary capital, the coal and iron, and the skilled 
shipbuilders and engineers of the Clyde and the Tyne. 

English ships have always been overwhelmingly in the majority 
at Suez. 2,951 British vessels passed through the canal. In 1913 
the Germans being second with 778. In the last few years, there 
has been a significant growth in the number of Japanese vessels 
passing through Suez. But the American flag was never seen 
there before the AVorld War, except on a warship, an army trans- 
port or a yacht. 

One unexpected result of the opening of the Suez Canal was 
that it brought the Philippines so much nearer Spain that large 
numbers of Spaniards hurried out to the islands to seek their for- 
tunes, and exploited the natives so vigorously that the latter rose 
in a series of revolts culminating in the possession of the Philip- 
pines by the United States. Even now that the Panama Canal is 
opened, Manila is almost equi-distant from New York by either 
route. 

During the year 1912, 20,275,120 tons of shipping passed 
through the Canal, an increase of nearly 2,000,000 tons over the 
year of 1911. The total receipts of $27,300,000 were the greatest 



THE SUEZ CANAL 



133 



in the history of the Canal. During the year 5,373 ships passed 
through the Canal, and of these 3,335 flew the British flag. In 
1913 traffic fell off somewhat; and since then, owing to the war, 
has been light. 

Saving of Distances. — Some idea of the saving of distance by 
the creation of Suez Canal can be obtained from the following 
statistics : 



From England to Bombay, via Cape of Good Hope, 10,860 miles 

'' Suez Canal, 4,620 miles 

Petrograd *' '' Cape of Good Hope, 11,610 miles 

'' Suez Canal, 6,770 miles 

New York " '' Cape of Good Hope, 11,520 miles 

" '' '' '' Suez Canal, 7,920 miles 



SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 

The student of geography may learn quickly to use the 
Flat-Globe in an intelligent manner. The hemispheres are placed 
back to back so as to coincide perfectly, thereby giving the effect 
of a globe. Arranged in this manner, direction and relative 
position are as accurately studied as though a globe were used, 
while there is no such inconvenience as one finds in use of a 
globe. 

Highways of the Seas. — The principal ocean highways and the 
distance in miles between ports are shown in dotted red lines on 
the Flat-Globe. By following these lines from one hemisphere to 
the other, one may get a globe effect, as a given degree of lati- 
tude or longitude in one hemisphere corresponds to the same 
degree in the other. This brings all parallels and meridians cor- 
rectly in place. 

To show how vessels sail around the world, follow the line 
from New York City across the Atlantic, past the Azores to 
Gibraltar, through the Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal, Red Sea, 
Gulf of Aden, across the Arabian Sea to Ceylon, then through 
the Indian Ocean to Australia, to Melbourne and New Zealand, 
then across the Pacific Ocean through the Panama Canal, and 
thence across the Caribbean Sea and on the Atlantic Ocean to 
New York City. 

The Zones are situated within fixed circles on each hemisphere ; 
and they are imaginary belts, called Tropical or Equatorial, North 
Temperate, North Polar or Arctic, South Temperate and South 
Polar or Antarctic. The Tropical Zone is situated between the 
Tropic of Capricorn, a dotted line 23y2 degrees south of the equa- 
tor, and the Tropic of Cancer, a dotted line 23y> degrees north of 
the equator. The Polar Circles are each 23% degrees from the 
nearest pole. The North Temperate Zone is situated between the 
Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer; the South Temperate 
Zone between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. 

134 



SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 135 

The North Polar Zone lies within the Arctic Circle, and the South 
Polar Zone is within the Antarctic Circle. 

Dotted black lines illustrate the limits of ordinary navigation 
toward the poles, the limits of the heavy drift ice, and the ooral 
reefs and islands. The zones of the planetary winds are indicated 
on the margin, and the direction of ocean currents are distinctly 
charted. 

Standard Time. — Differences of time may be converted readily 
into differences of longitude, and vice versa. When it is noon on 
the prime meridian, for example, it is earlier for places to the 
west of Greenwich by one hour for every 15 degrees of west 
longitude; it is later in all places east of Greenwich. Thus, the 
surface of the earth may be divided into spaces by meridians 
fifteen degrees apart, beginning with Greenwich. These meridians 
are hour-circles. The first three hour-circles west of Greenwich 
are in the Atlantic Ocean; the fourth, the meridian of 60°, passes 
through Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; the fifth, the 75th 
meridian, is near Philadelphia ; the sixth, or 90th meridian, is near 
St. Louis; the seventh, or 105th meridian, is near Denver; and 
the eighth, or 120th meridian, is the western boundary of Nevada. 

From these standard meridians, standard railway time in 
North America is now taken, each company adopting the time of 
the hour-circle nearest the greater portion of its road. The names 
applied to these standards are Maritime or Atlantic, on the 60th 
meridian; Eastern, on the 75th meridian; Central, on the 90th 
meridian; Mountain, on the 105th meridian; Pacific, on the 120th 
meridian. 

For the convenience of railway time tables, standard time does 
not change at the exact meridian; the change is made usually at 
the end of a division where train crews are changed. It often 
happens that the business and domestic time of a city varies from 
standard, being kept more nearly to solar or true time. 

In order to conserve daylight it is generally customary in 
Europe, and of late in America, to set the time one hour ahead 
at 2 : 00 A.M. about the last Sunday in March or the first Sunday 
in April. This is known as ''summer time." Normal time is 
restored in October. 

All places within the same time belt have nominally the same 
time. On the meridian of 75° west near Philadelphia, for exam- 



136 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

pie, it is noon at the same instant from the north to the south pole. 

Time Around the World. — At the equator on the Flat-Globe 
are shown twenty-four clock faces, one for every hour of the day. 
When it is twelve o'clock, noon, at Greenwich, longitude 0°, at 
fifteen degrees east of that point it is one o'clock P.M., and at 
fifteen degrees west it is eleven o'clock A.M.; and for every addi- 
tional fifteen degrees east or west of Greenwich, to the 180th 
meridian or International Date Line, where it is midnight, there 
is a difference of one hour in time. East of Greenwich it is P.M., 
west of Greenwdch it is A.M. For example: to find the time of 
day at any point, say, from St. Louis, Missouri. If it is twelve 
o'clock, noon, at St. Louis, it is later to the east, and earlier to 
the west. One may readily reckon the time from any point by 
noting the longitude of the given place, and following the dials 
therefrom, allowing one hour for each fifteen degrees. 

To Find the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. — To find the 
latitude of any place, find the parallel nearest to the place, and 
follow it to the right or left margin of the map, maintaining the 
approximate distance above or below the line, as the Flat-Globe 
shows a line at every ten degrees; if north of the equator it is 
in north latitude, and if south of the equator it is in south lati- 
tude. 

To find the longitude of any place, start from the equator on a 
meridian nearest to that point and approximate the degrees in 
longitude from the figures that show at a distance of five degrees 
on the equator; bearing in mind that the places to the right or 
east of the meridian of Greenwich to 180 degrees are in east longi- 
tude, and those to the left of Greenwich to 180 degrees are in west 
longitude. 

Approximate Ocean Distances. — A nautical mile is approxi- 
mately 6,086 feet; a statute or English land mile is 5,280 feet; 
a nautical mile is therefore equal to about 1.15 statute miles. A 
knot is a rate of speed of one nautical mile per hour. Actually 
it is the distance between any two knots in the log line that is 
used in finding the speed of a vessel. On a clear day two steamers 
approaching each other on parallel lines at 20 knots speed will 
meet at the end of fifteen minutes after their hulls first become 
visible to the naked eye, and at the end of another fifteen minutes 
will have passed out of sight astern. 



SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 



137 



CUSTOMS DISTRICTS AND PORTS OF ENTRY OF THE UNITED STATES 







Number of 


District 


Chief Port 


Ports in 
District 


Alaska 


Juneau 


12 


Arizona 


Nogales 


4 


Buffalo 


Buffalo 


5 


Chicago 


Chicago 


3 


Colorado 


Denver 


1 


Connecticut 


Bridgeport 


9 


Dakota 


Pembina 


14 


Duluth and Superior 


Duluth-Superior 


7 


El Paso 


El Paso 


4 


Florida 


Tampa 


12 


Galveston 


Galveston 


4 


Georgia 


Savannah 


4 


Hawaii 


Honolulu 


5 


Indiania 


Indianapolis 


2 


Iowa 


Des Moines 


3 


Kentucky 


Louisville 


2 


Maine and New Hampshire 


Portland 


26 


Maryland 


Baltimore 


5 


Massachusetts 


Boston 


12 


Michigan 


Detroit 


21 


Mobile 


Mobile 


4 


Montana and Idaho 


Great Falls 


5 


New Orleans 


New Orleans 


2 


New York 


New York City 


6 


North Carolina 


Wilmington 


6 


Ohio 


Cleveland 


12 


Omaha 


Omaha 


2 


Oregon 


Portland 


4 


Philadelphia 


Philadelphia 


6 


Pittsburgh 


Pittsburgh 


2 


Porto Rico 


San Juan 


9 


Rhode Island 


Providence 


2 


Rochester 


Rochester 


6 


Sabine 


Port Arthur 


2 


San Antonio 


San Antonio 


9 


San Francisco 


San Francisco 


3 


Southern California 


Los Angeles 


5 


South Carolina 


Charleston 


3 


St. Lawrence 


Ogdensburg 


15 


St. Louis 


St. Louis 


3 


Tennessee 


Memphis 


4 


Utah and Nevada 


Salt Lake City 




Vermont 


St. Albans 


1 


Virginia 


Norfolk and Newport News 


6 


Washington 


Seattle 


20 


Wisconsin 


Milwaukee 


9 



138 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 



New York 

(Sandy Hook) 

to 



Naut. 
mi. 



Alexandria 4,988 

Algiers 3,564 

Amsterdam 3,335 

Antwerp 3,208 

Azores 2,250 

Bermuda fiiH 

IJrumin 3,484 

Cherbourg 3,027 

Christiania 3,425 

Copenhagen 3,800 

Dover 3,160 

Fastnet 2,800 

Genoa 4,060 

Gibraltar 3,200 

Glasgow 2,950 



New York 

(Sandy Hook) 

to 



Naut. 
mi. 



Hamburg 3,510 

Havre 3,094 

Liverpool 3,032 

Lizard 2,934 

London 3,222 

Marseilles 3,900 

Milford Haven 2,875 

Naples 4,140 

Newfoundland, Banks of 960 

Plymouth 2,946 

Prawle Point 2,959 

Queenstown, Roche Point 2,772 

Rotterdam 3,290 

Scilly, Bishop Rock 2,886 

Southampton 3,1 00 



DISTANCES AND MAIL TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY 



By Postal Route To— 



Miles 



Adelaide, via San Francisco 

Alexandria, via London 

Amsterdam, " " 

Antwerp, " " 

Athens, " " 

Bangkok, Siam, via San Francisco 

Batavia, Java, via London 

Berlin, via London 

Bombay, " " 

Bremen, " " 

Calcutta, via London 

Cape Town, via London 

Constantinople, via London 

Florence, via London 

Glasgow 

Hamburg, via London 

Hong Kong, via San Francisco .... 
Honolulu, " " " 

Liverpool 

London 

Madrid, via London 

Melbourne, via San Francisco 

Paris 

Rome, via London 

Rotterdam, via London. . .- 

Petrograd, via London 

Shanghai, via San Francisco 

Stockholm, via London 

Sydney, via San Francisco 

Vienna, via London 

Yokohama, via San Francisco 



12,845 


34 


6,150 


14 


3,985 


9 


3,208 


9 


5,655 


14 


12,990 


43 


12,800 


35 


4,385 


9 


9,765 


26 


4,235 


9 


11,120 


29 


1 1 ,245 


27 


5,810 


13 


4,800 


10 


3,375 


9 


4, .340 


9 


10,.590 


30 


5.645 


13 


3. .'540 


8 


3.740 


8 


4,925 


10 


12,265 


32 


4,020 


8 


5,030 


10 


3,935 


9 


5,370 


11 


9,920 


10 


4,975 


31 


11,570 


9 


4,740 


22 


7,348 


31 



Davs 



SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 139 

* Naut. 

mi. 

New York to Sandy Hook 18 

Sandy Hook to Sandy Hook Lightship 8 

Sandy Hook J^ightship to Fire Island 30 

Fire Island to Shinnecock 35 

Shinnecock to Nantucket Lightship 122 

Baltimore to Hamburg (Cuxhaven) 3,813 

Baltimore to Southampton 3,405 

Baltimore to Queenstovvn (Roche Point) 3,118 

Philadelphia to Hamburg (Cuxhaven ) 3,r)33 

Philadelphia to Southampton 3,223 

Philadelphia to Queenstown ( Roche Point) 2,950 

Boston to Hamburg ( Cuxhaven ) 3,27S 

Boston to Southampton 2,868 

Boston to Queenstovvn (Roche Point) 2,581 

Index to Map Coloring. — The physical features are shown on 
the Flat-Globe by the most modern system of color-printing. 
Political boundaries are clearly but inconspicuously marked by 
purple lines. The elevation of the land is shown by colors and 
shades, as follows: — 

1. Land below sea-level, purple. 

2. From sea-level to 1,000 feet, green. 

3. From 1,000 to 2,000 feet, yellow. 

4. From 2,000 to 5,000 feet, buff. 

5. In the Western Hemisphere, land above 5,000 feet, deeper 
buff. 

6. In the Eastern Hemisphere, land from 5,000 to 15,000 feet, 
buff like No. 5 above. 

7. In the Eastern Hemisphere, land above 15,000 feet, a deep 
reddish buff. 



EDITORIAL NOTE 

This Globe and History have been carefully designed to meet 
the needs of all places of learning, private homes and business 
and professional offices. Very slight alterations of boundaries 
and of the status of countries may follow the final deliberations of 
the Peace Conference ; but both the Globe and the text of the His- 
tory have been brought up-to-the-minute, and such changes as may 
be slowly brought about within the next year or two will be incon- 
siderable. These little changes have been forecast in the descrip- 
tions of the various countries and regions under ''National and 
Political Geography." 



NATIONAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
Political Divisions of the World 

Sovereign Nations and Independent States. — In each continent 
are a few independent countries; most in Europe and least in 
Africa. Few of the islands are independent; most of them are 
dependencies of one or another nation, the British Empire hold- 
ing more than all the rest of the nations together. The total area 
of the land surfaces of the globe is 52,000,000 square miles; of 
this, 24,940,000 square miles or 48 per cent, is free, and the 
remainder tributary. 

Following is a list of sovereign states and independent coun- 
tries at the present time : 





NORTH AMERICA 


Costa Rica 


Nicaragua 


Cuba 


Panama 


Guatemala 


Salvador 


Haiti 


Santo Domingo 


Honduras 


United States of America 


Mexico 


Total 11 




140 



DESCKIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 



141 



SOUTH AMERICA 



Argentina 


Ecuador 


Bolivia 


Paraguay 


Brazil 


Peru 


Chile 


Uruguay 


Colombia 


Venezuela 




Total 10 




EUROPE 


Albania 


Liechtenstein 


Andorra 


Lithuania 


Austria 


Luxemburg 


Belgium 


Monaco 


Bulgaria 


Netherlands, The 


Czechoslovakia 


Norway 


Constantinople, State of Poland 


Denmark 


Portugal 


Esthonia 


Rome, See and Church of 


Finland 


Rumania 


France 


Russia 


Germany 


San Marino 


Greece 


Spain 


Hungary 


Sweden 


Iceland 


Switzerland 


Italy 


United Kingdom of Great 


Jugo-Slavia 


Britain and Ireland 


Latvia 


Total 34 




ASIA 


Afghanistan 


Nepal 


Bhutan 


Oman 


China 


Persia 


Hedjaz 


Siam 


Japan 


Turkey 




Total 10 




AFRICA 


Abyssinia 


Liberia 




Total 2 


Total sovereign nations and 


independent states, 67 



Colonies and Other Dependencies. — Most large nations, espe- 
cially those of Europe, have acquired colonial possessions in order 
to secure space for surplus population, sources for raw material, 
and new outlets for their trade in manufactures. In some cases 
these possessions are so administered as to build them up, in 
others they are gouged and their native inhabitants mistreated 
and repressed. Most of the trade of dependencies is with the 
parent country, and this tendency is often strengthened by mu- 
tually preferential tariffs. A conspicuous example of a new, unde- 
veloped region parceled out among the stronger nations is 



142 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Africa; of which, out of a total area of 11,498,000 square miles, 
less than 600,000 are free. 

In the following descriptions, the larger and better known 
dependencies are treated under their own names; the remainder, 
cited alphabetically, are referred to the parent country for 
description. The whole is thus a self-indexed gazetteer and ency- 
clopedia. 

Ahgarris Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Abyssinia (Ethiopia). — A native empire in East Africa. 
Latitude 15°-3° north, longitude 32°-47° east; area, about 
350,000 square miles ; population, estimated between 3,500,000 and 
5,000,000, no official census. Except that Abyssinia in early times 
was intimately connected with Egypt, there are no. records of its 
ancient history. The natives claim to be descended from Solomon, 
king of Israel. Queen Sheba of Biblical fame was reported to be 
a queen of Abyssinia. A treaty between Menelek II and Great 
Britain, France, and Italy guarantees the integrity of the nation 
and provides for the building of railways. The men are, all things 
considered, the finest and most independent in the Nile watershed. 

A rugged plateau mostly, 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
In the center of the country is a great depression, occupied by 
Lake Tsana, the principal source of the Blue Nile. The chief 
products are coffee, wild indigo, cotton, sugar-cane, and dates. A 
fine variety of mocha coffee is grown for export. A native coffee 
plant is cultivated for domestic use. The country has many 
valuable forest trees. The capital is Adis Ababa. Other towns — 
Harrar, 40,000 ; Ankober, Axum, Gondar. No towns except Harrar 
have a permanent population above 6,000, but great market cele- 
brations swell the numbers at times. 

The country is almost exclusively agricultural, but tillage is 
very inadequate. The higher plateaus are adapted for European 
cereals. The western lowlands are hot and unhealthful. Indus- 
tries are very little developed. Mules and donkeys chiefly are 
used for transportation. The French railroad from Jibuti to 
Harrar and Adis Ababa is completed. Religion, Christian 
(Coptic). The exports are coffee, dates, ivory, gums, skins; 
imports, cotton goods, firearms , sugar, and coal oil. Exports 
(1913) about $3,750,000; imports about $1,000,000, chiefly from 
England, France, India, Italy and United States. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 143 

Aden: — see British Possessions ; Asia, p. 165. 

Adrar: — see Rio del Oro and Adrar, p. 259. 

Admiralty Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Afghanistan. — A despotic monarchy in south-central Asia. 
Latitude about 38°-29° north, longitude 61°-75° east; area, about 
245,000 square miles ; population, 6,000,000 ; capital, Kabul, popu- 
hition, 180,000; other cities— Kandahar, 40,000; Herat, 20,000. Its 
early history is obscure. For centuries it was a shuttlecock 
between Persia and India. In 1839 a British army of 16,000 was 
massacred in Khaibar Pass. It is now nominally independent, but 
practically a British protectorate. It is situated between Persia 
and India, and is of the greatest importance to Great Britain 
from the fact that Khaibar Pass, the chief overland route to 
India, is within its territory. It is one of the most barren coun- 
tries in the world. Sand, bare rocks, sterile hills, and vast 
snow-capped mountains are the main features of this stern, inhos- 
pitable country. In summer it is hot everywhere except at high 
altitudes. The daily temperature range is great. The tempera- 
ture depends upon the elevation and not upon the latitude. 
Stony, treeless slopes, parched soil, and whirling sand storms 
increase the heat and dryness of the scorching air. Winter brings 
frost, snow and blustering storms. One moment a traveler may 
be in the sun's glare and the next he is pierced by the icy wind. 
The products are wheat, barley, rice, millet and Indian com. 
Fruits, such as figs, pomegranates and almonds, are produced in 
large quantities. The Bactrian camel, fat-tailed sheep and goats 
are reared. Agriculture is maintained at a high standard, and 
irrigation is almost as perfect as in China. The manufactures are 
mainly felts and carpets of wool and hair, silk and firearms. 

The Afghans are a Semitic people resembling the Persians 
and the Muhammadans of India, with whom they apparently are 
related. They are unfriendly to foreigners. Religion, Muham- 
madan. Foreign commerce is inconsiderable. Carpet rugs are 
exported to the United States; lumber, fruits, grain, and 
asafoetida are sent to India, with which country most of the for- 
eign commerce is carried on, the products passing from Kabul 
by the Gomal route. Exports into India (1916-17), about 
$5,750,000; imports (1916-17), about $5,720,000. 

Africa. — A continent comprising the largest of the three main 



144 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

southward projections of the continental shields. Extends from 
37° 21' north, to 34° 15' 35" south in latitude, and in longitude 
from 17° 33' 22" west to 51° 27' 52" east. Area, exclusive of 
islands, 11,262,000 square miles; its islands add 236,000 square 
miles. It is especially characterized by the regularity and short- 
ness of coast-line, and by the small amount of low coastal land, 
resulting in relative inaccessibility of much of the interior. 
Scarcity of good harbors and the difficulty of transportation to 
the interior imposed by topography and climate, have been impor- 
tant factors in retarding its economic development. While parts 
have been known since very ancient times, and whole civilizations 
have risen and fallen there, most of its surface has been unknown 
to white men until within a century, and much is still unexplored 
in detail. Of a very considerable part only the most meagre maps 
are available. Its native races are largely Berbers, Hamites, and 
Semites in the north and Negroes and Negroids in the remainder 
of the continent. These are all relatively low in civilization, as 
compared with advanced nations, and the larger part of the people 
are still in a state of savagery or semi-savagery. 

The development of much of the country has been advanced 
within the last half-century by Europeans, often through unfair 
and cruel exploitation. The English, however, have notably aided 
the natives of parts under their control, so that their productive- 
ness has increased and their scale of living advanced. With its 
climatic range — from humid tropical to temperate, with its vast 
wealth of mineral and vegetable resources, and with the agricul- 
tural possibilities of the more favored parts, Africa holds unlim- 
ited opportunities for development. Parts probably will never 
be reclaimed, as the great deserts on the one hand and much of 
the tropical jungle on the other; but with these deducted there is 
yet a vast area that can be made in future to minister to man 
far more than in the past. 

Alaska. — A territory of the United States formerly known as 
Russian America. Latitude 72°-52° north, longitude 130° west- 
172° east; area, 590,884 square miles; population (1915) estimated, 
66,000; capital, Juneau; other cities — Fairbanks, Nome, Copper 
City, Valdez, and Seward. 

This territory, including the Aleutian Islands, came into the 
possession of the United States by purchase from Russia in 1867, 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 145 

at a cost of $7,200,000 in gold. Congress created Alaska a civil 
and territorial government May 17, 1884. At the time of its pur- 
chase from Russia it was called "Seward's folly." In its resources 
in fur-bearing animals, gold, copper, coal, petroleum, salmon 
fisheries, and timber, Alaska is one of the foremost regions in the 
world. The salmon fisheries alone yield an income of more than 
$15,000,000. The mineral output (1916) is about $50,000,000. The 
seal fisheries at the Pribiloff Islands are closed. It has vast 
lumber districts in its southern parts. Cedar is abundant. Its 
coast line is over 18,000 miles, or more than that of all the United 
States proper. There are 61 volcanoes, 10 of which are active. 
Katmai, with its ''valley of ten thousand smokes," is the most 
famous. Alaska is one of the great glacial regions of the world. 
There are numerous hot mineral and boiling springs. Medicinal 
springs abound. Its great river, the Yukon, is navigable for 
upwards of 1,000 miles. 

The gold placer deposits of the Tanana, Copper and Koyukuk 
Rivers and Porcupine Creek are conspicuous for their yield. Cop- 
per is mined in the Copper River, upper Tanana, and other dis- 
tricts, and is the chief metal in value (1916, $29,500,000). The gold 
product (1916) is not far from $17,000,000. Coal is mined along 
the Yukon, and valuable deposits on Controller Bay await exploita- 
tion. Petroleum occurs at Controller Bay and at Cook's Inlet. 
The petroleum lands have been withdrawn from exploitation by 
the government. Tin is mined at Seward Peninsula. The yearly 
product (1916) is valued at $121,000. The coal fields are likely to 
prove the most valuable mineral asset. The most available fields 
are not far from Prince William Sound. They are reached by 
railways now nearing completion. In a few districts much hay 
and a good variety of field crops can be raised. Reindeer for draft 
and meat purposes are multiplying. A railway from Skagway to 
the head of navigation of Yukon River is in operation. Lines 
from Cordova to Copper City, and from Seward to Fairbanks are 
nearing completion. A cable from Seattle connects the most 
important coast towns with the United States, and a system of 
internal telegraphs is in operation. 

Albania. — Albania was originally carved out parts of western 
Turkey, and has been an independent state since 1912. The ruling 
prince left upon the outbreak of the World War, and the country 



146 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

has been without a responsible head, having been speedily over- 
run by x\ustrian troops. The Peace Conference proposes to erect 
the country into a permanent state. The inhabitants are largely 
a distinct race, separate from the Montenegrins, Serbs and Greeks 
who are adjacent to them. The boundaries are likely to be 
approximately those of 1914, except for a slight extension to the 
northeast and north, and the deduction of the Greek population 
at the south. As thus constituted, it lies between 42 °40'-40 ° 40' 
north, and 19° 10-21° 5' east. Its area in 1914 was about 11,000 
square miles, its new area may be 9,500 to 10,000 square miles; 
population (1914), between 800,000 and 800,500. Large numbers 
were lost during the war. Principal towns, Durazzo, former pro- 
visional capital; Scutari, 32,000 (1914); Elbasan, 13,000; Tirana, 
12,000. The country suffered much under Turkish rule, and had 
no time to recover thereafter. The inhabitants are of a fine type, 
capable of great progress. Most of the territory is quite unde- 
veloped, and transportation facilities must be provided before it 
can yield to modern economic influences. 

Aleutian Islands: — see United States of America, p. 278. 

Alfi Island: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. 

Algeria. — The most important colony of France; situated on 
the Mediterranean coast of Africa. Latitude 37°-32° north, longi- 
tude 2° west-8° east; area, 174,474 square miles, exclusive of the 
Sahara dependency to the south (750,000 square miles); the 
main economic portion occupies 343,500 square miles; popula- 
tion (1916), estimated, 5,230,000, no official census; capital, Al- 
giers, 172,000; other cities— Oran, 123,000; Constantine, 65,000; 
Bone, 42,000 — all estimated. Algeria is a part of the north coast 
known, with Morocco and Tunisia, as Africa Minor. The Romans 
built the trading-post known as Csesarea at the site of Algiers. 
The state was formed at the time of the Turkish conquest, in the 
sixteenth century. It became a French colony about 1830. 

The climate resembles that of southern Italy. The coast is 
divided into several long strips by the parallel chains of the Great 
and Little Atlas — the coast plain, partly cultivable ; the Tell, the 
chief agricultural and stock-farming region; the great plateau 
with interior drainage and salt lakes; and the Algerian Sahara, 
with fertile oases. The chief crops are grain, wine, oil, tobacco, 
dates and southern fruits. Large quantities of vegetables are 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 147 

raised for the markets of France. Cork and esparto grass for 
paper making are exported. The fisheries are extensive. Horses, 
camels and sheep are of superior quality. The country is rich in 
phosphates, and yields iron, copper, lead and salt. The Arab 
natives make carpets and other distinctive wares. The French 
have few manufactures. Wagon roads are good, and nearly three 
times the length of the railroads, of which over 2,000 miles have 
been Imilt. The population consists mainly of Berbers, or natives, 
French, Italians, and Jews. The prevailing religions are Muham- 
madan. Christian, and Jewish. The foreign trade is carried on 
almost wholly with France, to which it sends foodstuffs, and from 
which it receives manufactures. Exports (1916), $106,775,000; 
imports, $106,000,000. 

American Samoa: — see United States, Outlying Territories, 
p. 285. 

American Virgin Islands: — see United States, Outlying Terri- 
tories, p. 285. 

Amsterdam Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Anatolia: — see Turkey, p. 274. 

Anchorite Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Andaman Islands: — see India, p. 219. 

Andorra. — An autonomous and semi-independent state in the 
Pyrenees. Latitude 42° 30' north, longitude 1°30' east; area, 
191 square miles; population (1916), 5,231. It is nominally under 
the sovereignty of France and the Bishop of Urgel, Spain; prac- 
tically it is independent. It is so small that a cannon shot fired 
from any part will lodge in foreign territory. A prefect has 
charge of French interests. 

The inhabitants continue to govern themselves in accordance 
with old feudal customs. The land belongs to a few families. Cat- 
tle breeding and a little iron and woolen manufacturing are the 
chief industries. The village of Andorra is the capital, but San 
Julia de Loria is a more important place. The Spanish language 
chiefly is spoken. Foreign commerce is negligible. 

Angola: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: — see Egypt, p. 191. 

Annam: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. 

Annobon Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. 

Antarctica. — A name commonly given to the land and ice areas 



148 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

of the South Polar region. The territory presents two contrasts 
with the North Polar region. The antarctic ice extends into much 
lower latitudes than the arctic; so that, while there are habitable 
lands far within the Arctic Circle, there is none in the Antarctic, 
and the pack ice lies often considerably outside the circle. 

The second point of contrast is that in the arctic there is no 
continental area, but deep sea covered with ice, as Peary and others 
have shown; while the antarctic area, rising to heights of 11,000 
feet and more at and near the pole, with mountain peaks protrud- 
ing here and there through the glacial ice, is almost certainly a 
continent, partially submerged, so that it is fringed with a host 
of islands. 

These islands and peninsulas, although bearing names indicat- 
ing the country of their discoverers, are barren and uninhabited, 
and are not under the political jurisdiction of any nation. 

The discovery of the South Pole succeeded that of the North 
Pole but a few months. The former was reached by Peary on 
April 6, 1909 ; the latter by Amundsen on December 16, 1911, and 
by Scott on January 17, 1912. 

Antigua: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Antipodes Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Apia: — see German Samoa, p. 206. 

Apolima: — see German Samoa, p. 206. 

Arabia. — A peninsula, formerly a part of the Turkish Empire, 
comprising a number of separate states, of which Hejaz and 
Oman are the largest; Yemen will probably become a part of 
Hejaz. The great central area, Nejed, is desert. Latitude 
34°30'-12°45' north, longitude 32° 30-60° east; area, approxi- 
mately, 1,200,000 square miles; population, estimated, 8,500,000; 
capital, Mecca (1916), 80,000; other cities— Basra 80,000; Medina, 
40,000; no official census. Arabia is the home of Semitic peo- 
ples, and from this area as a center they migrated to the 
four quarters of the earth. During the World War the various 
petty states declared themselves independent of Turkey, and cer- 
tain of them organized the independent state of Hejaz. Their 
tribesmen were of the utmost service to the English forces, espe- 
cially in Palestine. 

The Arabian peninsula is surrounded on three sides by seas. 
It is an extensive desert area, interspersed with fertile lands along 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 149 

the coasts and oases in the interior, where millet, cotton, coffee, 
indigo, barley, sugar, dates, tobacco and aromatic plants are 
raised. Some of the inhabitants dwell in towns and till the soil. 
For the greater part they are Bedouins, or wandering tribes, 
whose wealth consists of horses, camels, asses and mules, for which 
the country is noted. In all this vast country there is scarcely a 
stream deserving the title of river. Mecca, the birthplace of 
Mohammed, derives its support from the thousands of pilgrims 
who travel thither from every part of the Mohammedan world. 
A pilgrimage to Mecca is the duty of every faithful Mussulman. 
Many also visit Medina, his burial-place. It is on the slopes of 
Yemen, on the southwest coast, that the famous Mocha coffee is 
raised ; but owing to primitive methods, the production has become 
very small. It is exported from Hodeda, a small port on the Eed 
Sea. Only in the mountainous southwest has a fixed population 
established itself. The Semitic peoples of Arabia are divided into 
many tribes. Religion, Mohammedan. Foreign trade small. A 
railroad from Damascus to Mecca is completed to Medina. The 
Arabian peninsula is important to the rest of the world from the 
fact that it lies between two great trade routes — the Suez Canal, 
and the Bagdad route by way of the Tigris-Euphrates and Shat 
el Arab to India. This route, formerly held by the Germans, is 
now occupied by the British. 

Argentina (Argentine Republic). — South America. Latitude 
22°-55° south, longitude 73° 17-53° 40' west; area, 1,153,119 
square miles; population (1915), 7,979,259; capital, Buenos Aires; 
population (1916), estimated, 1,598,600; other cities — Rosario 
(1915), 234,000; La Plata, 119,000; Tucuman, 66,000; Bahia 
Blanca, 75,000 ; Mendoza, 62,000. The region including Argentine 
Republic, commonly called Argentina, was discovered by Juan 
Solis in 1516. It was a Spanish possession up to 1816, when inde- 
pendence was declared. The present organization dates from 1853. 

Argentina is the richest and most prosperous South American 
State. Climate chiefly temperate. A few years ago only a cattle- 
raising country, it has become the foremost agricultural state of 
South America. Most of the surface consists of prairie lands 
called pampas. It is the foremost wheat producing state of South 
America and one of the leading wheat-export regions of the world. 
The eastern part, together with the region between the Parana and 



150 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Uruguay rivers, are important farming lands. Maize and linseed 
are very large crops. Animal raising, chiefly cattle and sheep, is 
very extensive. The mineral resources near the Andes Mountains 
are still almost undeveloped. Manufacturing is small, but grow- 
ing. The Parana, Paraguay and Uruguay Rivers are splendid 
highways of trade. Railroads, in all nearly 22,000 miles, penetrate 
the grain-growing plains. In the province of Buenos Aires these 
form a close network. The Transandine Railway connects Buenos 
Aires with Valparaiso, Chile. Races — Spanish-American, Italian, 
German, and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. The foreign 
trade consists mainly of grain, frozen meats and livestock sold in 
European markets ; and the import of manufactured articles from 
Europe and the United States. Exports (1917), $688,212,560; 
imports, $475,080,394. Exports to United States (1916), $113,488,- 
657; imports from United States, $63,522,365. 

Armenia. — A somewhat ill-defined region along the southern 
shore of the Black Sea, east of Anatolia (Asia Minor) and extend- 
ing slightly into Russian Trans-Caucasia and into Persia. It 
originally formed part of the Armenian Kingdom. North of it 
lies the territory that declared its independence of Russia in 1918 
as the Republic of Georgia. Roughly, it stretches from 41° 30' 
to 37°30' north, and from 37° to 48° east; area, about 162,000 
square miles; population, estimated, at 7,800,000. Important 
towns are Erzerum, 80,000; Trebizond, 55,000; Bitlis, 40,000; 
Shusha, 43,000. It is likely to be recognized as a separate state, 
either of sovereign power or a mandatory under one of the Allied 
and Associated Powers. Topographically the region is a much 
dissected plateau, with some mountains, partly volcanic. Mount 
Ararat is one of the latter. This topography has had the effect 
of producing in the people a lack of cohesion. Important salt 
and fresh water lakes are found in the depressions. The plateau 
surface is forbidding, but the valleys are often wide and of fine 
agricultural character. Some of the mountain gorges are unsur- 
passed for scenery, and water-power is abundant. The mineral 
wealth of the country is very great, but little developed. The 
crops vary from hardy cereals and fruits on the higher land to 
rice in the lowlands. Vineyards flourish. Opportunity for stock- 
raising is very great. The country will respond splendidly to 
stimulation on the part of a high-minded nation ; but the policy of 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 151 

oppression and extermination pursued by the Turks has greatly- 
depressed and impoverished the people, and has all but obliterated 
them. 

Ascension Island: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. 

AsJianti: — see British West Africa, p. 173. 

Asia. — The most extensive of the continental areas, and form- 
ing by far the larger portion of the vast Eur-Asian shield. It 
extends from 77° 40' north, latitude to 1°1G' north, and in longi- 
tude from 26° 3' east, to 169° 40' west. Its area, including islands, 
is estimated at 17,057,666 square miles. Its boundary with Europe 
is political rather than geographical, extending from the Arctic 
Ocean along or east of the Ural Mountains to the Caspian Sea, 
and through the Caucasus Mountains on the south. In this respect 
it differs from the other continents. 

The topography of so great a continent must of necessity be 
most diverse, and the climate equally so. As a result many parts 
are relatively inaccessible, and large areas are desert. While the 
former may yield to improved transportation, most of the latter 
will never be redeemed. Certain portions of the continent, how- 
ever, are of great importance to western peoples — notably India, 
Japan, and Siberia. The second of these is the only region that 
has, as a whole, adopted western methods and been developed in 
such ways and to such extent as to be comparable to western 
nations of high grade. The economic possibilities of all parts of 
the continent except the great deserts are enormous; and the 
western world has scarcely begun to realize how vast are Asia's 
resources of raw materials, or what markets can be developed for 
our manufactured goods. 

Asir. — Formerly a district of Turkey, lying between Hejaz 
and Yemen, on the west coast of Arabia. Latitude 21°-17°30' 
north, longitude 40°30'-45° east. Its indefinite eastern boundary 
extends along the desert border of Nejed. Its lowlands are hot 
and sterile; its interior is mountainous, with temperate climate 
and regular rainfall, and is fertile and populous. The people are 
warlike mountaineers, who have been virtually independent of 
Turkey, succeeding better than either Hejaz or Yemen. At pres- 
ent there seems no likelihood of their incorporation into either of 
these two countries. The people live for themselves, trading little 
with the rest of the world. 



152 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

AucMand Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. 

Australasia. — Practically the same as Oceania. It properly 
includes all the islands, large and small, extending from south- 
eastern Asia half-way across the Pacific Ocean. Its most impor- 
tant divisions are: — Malaysia, including the Philippines; Aus- 
tralia, Tasmania and New Zealand; Melanesia, Micronesia, and 
Polynesia. All the islands and island groups are possessed by 
some foreign nation, and are described in the text for the most 
part under the possessions of that nation. With a few exceptions 
the islands are under British control. 

Australia, Commonwealth of. — A self-governing commonwealth 
or Dominion of Gi"eat Britain. Latitude ll°-39° south, longitude 
113°-153° east; area, 2,974,581; population (1917), estimated, 
4,895,894; temporary capital, Melbourne, 695,640; other cities — 
Sydney, 764,600; Brisbane, 168,393; Adelaide, 223,718. Aus- 
tralia and Tasmania originally were convict colonies of Great 
Britain. Among its early explorers Avere Tasman, 1642, and 
Dampier, 1688. Its chief explorer was Captain Cook, 1769. The 
penal settlements were abolished early in the nineteenth century. 
The commonwealth as now organized was established 1901. The 
states are New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, West- 
ern Australia, Victoria, Tasmania. The division known as North- 
em Territory, a part of South Australia, is practically unorgan- 
ized. The Federal Territory, Yassa-Canberra, in New South 
Wales, not yet fully organized, has been made the site of the fed- 
eral capital. 

Australia is a typical continental land mass, compact in out- 
line and with few bays on its coasts, with a high border and low 
interior, and with the highest mountains on the side of the greater 
ocean. The Murray, the only large river, is navigable a part of the 
year only. The eastern highlands receive enough rain for the pro- 
duction of grass and other foodstuffs. The west coast receives 
enough rain for wheat, fruit, and grass. Most of the interior is a 
desert region that is practically uninhabited except by gold miners. 
Fruit and vegetables, grown in Australian summer, reach British 
markets in European mid-winter. Fruits, including the vine, are 
successfully cultivated in many places. Frequent droughts impair 
the value of agriculture. Australia produces about half the wool 
the world consumes, practically all of which goes to Great Britain. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 153 

The yield of gold is very large, and coal and other minerals are 
extracted in large quantities. Railways total nearly 21,000 miles 
in length. The distance of Australia from European markets is a 
disadvantage to its commerce. The fact that its summer season 
occurs during the European winter makes its food products more 
valuable than they would otherwise be. Many steamship routes 
connect the chief Australian ports with the great trade centers of 
the world. Races, British and aboriginal. Three-fourths of the 
population are Protestant. Exports (1916-17), $490,000,000; 
imports (1916-17), $381,000,000. 

Australia, Mandatories of. — In general, the Peace Conference 
awarded to Australia those lands nearest it and most directly af- 
fecting its future. These are three — the ex-German part of the 
island of New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon 
Islands. 

Kaiser Wilhelm's Land (Island of New Guinea) occupies the 
northern and eastern part of the island. Latitude 2° 30-8° south, 
longitude 141°-148° east; area, including attached islands, 70,000 
square miles; population, variously estimated at 110,000-350,000. 
Became a German protectorate in 1884. Principal town, Madang, 
formerly called Friedrich Wilhelm's Haven. Harbors are few; 
the coastal lowlands are 60 to 100 miles wide, behind which high 
mountains rise. Cocoanuts are raised, and all tropical fruits 
grow wild. Mineral resources great, but totally undeveloped. 
Trade negligible. 

Bismarck Archipelago is a large group of islands to the north 
and northeast of New Guinea. Latitude 0°-8° south, longitude 
141°-154° east; area, estimated, 20,000 square miles; population, 
estimated, 180,000. A German protectorate was declared in 1884- 
85 over several groups of islands, which were renamed the Bis- 
marck Archipelago. The former German names of many of the 
islands have been lately replaced by English names. Chief islands, 
New Britain (Neu Pommern), area, 10,000 square miles; and New 
Ireland (Neu Mecklenburg), 4,600 square miles. Smaller islands 
are Neu Hannover Island and the Duke of York (Neu Lauenburg) 
Islands. Besides the main group are — Admiralty Islands (chief 
island Taui or Manus, 600 square miles), St. Matthew Islands, 
Gardner Islands, Abgarris or Fead Islands, Nissan or Sir Charles 
Hardy Islands, French Islands, Rook Islands, Hermit Islands, 



154 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Ninigo Group, Anchorite Island and Commerson Island. Many of 
the islands are mountainous, with active volcanoes. Copra, cotton, 
coffee, rubber, pearls and shells are the products for export. 

The German Solomon Islands are part of a group of volcanic 
peaks, not distinctly separated from Bismarck Archipelago. Lati- 
tude 5°-ll° south, longitude 155°-163° east; area, estimated, 
4,200 square miles; population, estimated, 45,000. The natives 
belong to the Melanesian part of the Black Race. Islands very 
mountainous; principal harbor, Kieta on Bougainville, and there 
are other good harbors. British planters and merchants export 
cocoanuts, pineapples, sweet potatoes, sandal wood and tortoise 
shell. 

Austria.— A state of central Europe ; a limited monarchy until 
1918, when Hungary seceded and Austria became a republic. Of 
the great Dual Empire, little is left. Bohemia, Silesia, Galicia 
and Bukovina, Moravia, Hungary, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herze- 
govina are gone entirely. The total area of Austria-Hungary in 
1914 was 261,259 square miles; the loss of these divisions reduces 
it by 198,634 square miles. In 1915 the population was about 
51,216,000; it has shrunk by 42,500,000 from the regions named 
above. Besides these, most of Lower Austria north of the Danube, 
and much of Tyrol, Carinthia, Carniola and Coastland are gone. 
The loss of area and population in these cannot be estimated at 
present. 

What remains of Austria lies between 48° 30' and 46° 30' north, 
and between 9° 30' and 17° east. The capital remains Vienna. 

It is impossible to describe the resources of the country. The 
best of the arable land is gone, that remaining being chiefly in 
Lower Austria toward the Danube. Cattle raising, however, 
thrives in the Alpine sections. All the oil, and most of the coal 
and iron are found in the regions no longer Austrian. But coal, 
lignite, iron, copper, mercury, lead, zinc, sulphur, manganese, 
graphite and salt are all mined in the parts that are left. Race, 
almost entirely German; religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. 

Azores: — see Portugal, p. 256. 

Baker Island:— see U. S., Outlying Territories, p. 285. 

Baker Islands: — see British Possessions ; Australasia, p. 169. 

Bahama Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Bahrem Islan.ds: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 155 

Balearic Islands: — see Spain, p. 268. 

Bali: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Baluchistan: — see India, p. 219. 

Banca: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Barbados: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Basse-Terre Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 

Basutoland: — see British South Africa, p. 173. 

Bechuanaland: — see British South Africa, p. 173. 

Belgian Congo. — A state of Central Africa. Latitude 5° 
north-12° south, longitude 12''-30° east; area (estimated), 910,000 
square miles; population (estimated), 15,000,000, of whom less 
than 6,000 are Europeans, and the rest Bantus of the Black Race ; 
capital, Boma; principal trading-stations, Matadi, Banana, Leo- 
poldville, and Stanleyville. Explored by Dr. Livingstone and 
Henry M. Stanley, acting for the New York Herald. Founded as 
a state by Leopold II., King of the Belgians, 1882; made a state 
of Belgium, 1907. 

The watershed of the Congo, next to that of the Amazon, is 
the largest in the world, and most of it is included in the Congo 
state. The surface is chiefly a high table-land, bordered on the 
west by mountains, through which the river has cut its way for 
270 miles, dropping to the coast plain 1,800 feet in that distance. 
There is navigation up the lower Congo for 90 miles from its 
mouth; the rapids through the mountains are circumvented by 
railways in various places, above which about 8,000 miles of navi- 
gation are spread along the various branches of the upper Congo. 
The climate is torrid, and, excepting at some places, unhealth- 
ful for white races; but the heat is tempered by the elevation of 
the plateau, and as the whites have learned the conditions of 
health, the mortality among them has been reduced more than 
one-half. Great tropical forests are found in the east and north- 
east. Most of the state consists of rolling grass-lands, inter- 
spersed with areas of timber. A profusion of tropical plants and 
animals provides abundant food for the natives. The chief com- 
mercial products as yet are rubber, palm nuts, palm oil, and ivory; 
but some cotton and tobacco plantations are beginning to flourish. 
The wealth in rubber is enormous. European cattle have been 
introduced into regions where the tse-tse fly is not found. Gold, 
copper, silver and iron are the principal metals. Katanga, the 



156 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

southeast district, has great mineral wealth. On the upper Congo 
and its tributaries are 100 small steamers and many tow-boats, 
which ply to the heads of navigation. Ocean steamships reach 
Moma and the lower river stations. Nearly 1,000 miles of railway 
are in operation. Many thousands of the younger natives are 
being taught trades, and all manual and considerable skilled labor 
is performed by natives under white supervision. In 1912, 
the year of greatest trade, exports totalled $28,500,000; 
imports, $22,150,000. The larger part of the export was crude 
rubber. 

Belgian Possessions : — see Belgian Congo, p. 155. 

Belgium. — A constitutional monarchy of northwestern Europe. 
Latitude 51° 30'-49° 30' north, longitude 2° 30-6° 20' east; area 
(1914), 11,373 square miles; (1919), 11,775 square miles. The 
population, by the 1910 census, was 7,423,784; according to the 
normal increase, in 1919, it should be 8,092,924; the actual number 
is not known. The ex-German territories awarded to Belgium 
by the Treaty of 1919 add an estimated population of 119,184. 
Capital, Brussels (1912), 663,647 with suburbs; other cities — 
Antwerp, the chief port, 312,884; Liege, Ghent, Bruges, Verviers, 
Louvain and Ostend. Owing to the World War the population of 
these cities in 1919 is unknown. In Caesar's time the region was 
inhabited in part by the Belgae. From 1579, for more than two 
centuries, Belgium was a battle ground between Dutch and 
Spanish contestants for the territory. In 1815 it was united to 
Holland, although practically a separate state. In 1830 it became 
an independent kingdom. In 1914 it was overrun by Germans, 
and the greater part of it was held by them for four and a quarter 
years. The Treaty of Versailles, 1919, added to Belgium neutral 
Moresnet, the Kreis of Eupen, and the Kreis of Malmedy, extend- 
ing its boundary somewhat eastward between the Netherlands 
frontier and Luxemburg, so that there may never again occur 
the concentration of troops at the gateway to Belgium that took 
place in July, 1914. 

The country is normally one of the most densely peopled in 
the world. Every part of the land is cultivated to the highest 
degree, and it is a large producer of beet sugar. Nevertheless, 
although farming is very intensive, it cannot produce enough grain 
for home consumption. The Ardennes upland is rich in coal, iron, 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 157 

zinc, lead and copper. Coal measures underlie a considerable 
part of the area, but are so deep that coal mining is becoming 
difficult. 

Belgium is a great manufacturing country. Normally, more 
than 1,000,000 persons are engaged in manufactures; metal and 
machinery industries take the first rank, while textiles, glass, por- 
celain and other branches are very important. The railroad and 
canal systems are highly developed; but sea communications are 
hampered by the small extent of coast line, its shallow waters, and 
the poor quality of its harbors. More than one-half of the peo- 
ple are Flemish, 42 per cent. French, and the rest Walloons. 
Religion, dominantly Roman Catholic. Principal imports, wool, 
wheat, cotton, hides, coal, seeds, rubber; exports, wool, iron and 
steel, flax and its yarns, glass. Export trade chiefly to Ger- 
many, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, United States; import 
trade from France, Germany, Great Britain, United States, Neth- 
erlands. Exports (1913), $715,365,000; imports, $916,725,000. 

Belgium, Mandatory of. — Belgium has become the mandatary 
for a portion of ex-German East Africa, adjacent to Belgian 
Congo, included in the Ruanda district at the northwestern corner 
of the region, and the Urundi district to the south, lying at the 
northern end of Lake Tanganyika. This country will become 
practically an integral part of the Belgian Congo. For a descrip- 
tion of the region of which it is a part, see German East Africa. 

Bermudas: — see British Possessions; America, p. 164. 

Bhutan. — A state in the eastern Himalayas. Latitude 28°- 
26° 45' north, longitude 89°-92° east; area, about 20,000 square 
miles; population (estimated), 250,000. The natives were con- 
quered two centuries ago by Tibetans. In 1774 the East India Com- 
pany concluded a treaty with the country; but outrages by the 
inhabitants have led to British control, consummated in 1910, op- 
erative through India. Religion, a loose form of Buddhism. Chief 
products, rice, maize, millet, wax, poor cloth, musk, ponies and 
silk. A beginning has been made by the local government in the 
encouragement of foreign trade, and of foreign capital in mining 
and lumbering. The maximum of trade with India was reached 
in 1914-15, when exports amounted to $725,000, and imports to 
$585,000. 

Billiton: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 



158 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Bismarck Archipelago {German New Guinea): — see Aus- 
tralia, Mandatories of, p. 153. 

Bokhara: — see Russian Possessions, p. 263. 

Bolivia. — ^A republic of South America. Latitude 10°-16° 
south, longitude 70°-55° west; area, 514,155 square miles; popu- 
lation (1915), estimated, 2,900,000; seat of government, La Paz 
(191G), estimated, 100,000; other cities— Cochabamba, 31,000; 
Potosi, estimated, 30,000; Sucre, constitutional capital, estimated, 
30,000. The state was named after Simon Bolivar, who led in 
the revolt from Spain. The war for independence lasted from 
1809 to 1825. A war between Bolivia and Chile ended in the 
loss of the coast provinces, Tacna, Tarapaca and Antofagasta. 
These had not been restored in 1919. The agricultural products 
are fruit, corn and vegetables common to both temperate and 
tropical countries. The tropical forests are rich in cabinet, dye 
and building woods. India-rubber of first-class quality is found in 
enormous quantities, and the country is second in rubber exports. 
Gold, silver, antimony, copper and tin are extensively mined, 
Bolivia being next to the Malay region in tin production. The 
llama is the beast of burden employed for pack-trains. It is the 
original of the species from which the camel of the Asian con- 
tinent is descended. Among the important products is coca, a 
plant that yields the drug cocaine. In this country is partly 
situated Lake Titicaca, on whose historic shores stand the ruins 
of structures built by the once mighty race of Incas. The popu- 
lation consists of Spanish (white). Mestizos (mixed white and 
Indian), and full-blooded Indians. The last named constitute 
about one-third the population. Religion, Roman Catholic. The 
foreign trade of Bolivia is carried on through the Chilean port 
of Antofagasta, with which the mining region is connected by 
rail. Much of the rubber and other forest products reach their 
markets either by way of the Parana River to Buenos Aires, or 
by the Madeira River to Amazon ports. The proposed Pan- 
American Railway will utilize about 400 miles of Bolivian rail- 
way. The imports are provisions, hardware, liquor, cloth goods, 
clothes; the exports are chiefly silver, tin and rubber. Exports 
(1916-17), $39,500,000; imports, $12,140,000. 

Bonin Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 

Borneo: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 159 

Bounty Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Bourbon Island: — see Keunion Island, p. 259. 

Brazil.— A republic of South America. Latitude 5°-32° south, 
longitude 35°-74° west; area, 3,219,000 square miles; popu- 
lation (1912), 24,018,429; capital, Rio Janeiro (1911), estimated, 
1,129,000; other cities— Sao Paulo (1911), estimated, 450,000; 
Bahia, 290,000; Para, 200,000; Pernambuco, 150,000; Manaos, 
50,000. Brazil became a Portuguese colony in 1500; in 1813, a 
kingdom ; in 1822, an empire ; and in 1899 a republic. 

Brazil is the largest of the South American countries, being a 
little larger than the United States proper. It comprises nearly 
one-half of the area of South America. It surpasses all other 
countries in the extent of its navigable rivers. It has also 
immense forests and mines of great value, but not much has been 
done to develop its resources. The lowlands of the Amazon Basin 
are covered with dense tropical forests. The highlands inland, 
south of the Amazon Basin, are dry, steppe-like and sparsely 
populated. The region of the plantations is in the coast zone, 
which is fairly well tilled, and contains most of the important 
cities. The climate is tropical in the north, subtropical in the 
middle latitudes and temperate in the south. Brazil is the largest 
producer of coffee and rubber in the world. Para is the port of 
shipment of Amazon rubber; Santos for the coffee marketed as 
''Rio." The Amazon Basin abounds in rubber trees. Sugarcane 
is the great crop of the regions tributary to Pernambuco and 
Bahia. Cattle thrive chiefly among the farmers of the south. 
Mining is little developed. Manufactures are confined chiefly to 
the meat, sugar and brewing industries. Steamships for New 
York and British ports call at the various coast ports. They also 
ascend the Amazon to Manaos and Iquitos, Peru, the principal 
ports for the collection of rubber. The railways are chiefly in the 
southeastern part, converging at Rio and Sao Paulo. The popu- 
lation is mainly Portuguese, but it includes a large proportion of 
Americans, Italians and native Indians. Religion, Roman Catho- 
lic; language, Portuguese. The exports are chiefly coffee, rubber, 
tobacco, hides and cacao ; imports, foodstuffs, coal, machinery and 
textiles. Exports (1917), $299,375,000; imports, $222,550,000. 

British Borneo: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

British Central Africa: — see Nyassaland Protectorate, p. 248. 



160 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

British East Africa. — Consists of a large area on the main- 
land of Africa, in three protectorates : — East Africa, Uganda, and 
Zanzibar. 

The East African Protectorate extends from about 4° 30' 
north latitude to 5° south; and in longitude from 34° to 43° east; 
area, 246,822 square miles; population (estimated), 4,038,000. 
Mombassa is the largest town; population, about 30,000; capital, 
Nairobi, 14,000. The country was first made known to Europeans 
by German missionaries about the middle of the last century. 
Through British interests in Zanzibar, EngUsh companies gained 
concessions between 1884 and 1888. In 1887 the territory was 
formally recognized as within the British "sphere of influence," 
and in 1895 the administration was vested definitely in the British 
crown. 

The products of the country are chiefly agricultural — rice, 
maize, cassava, cocoanuts, sisal hemp, rubber, cotton; in the high- 
lands, a wide variety of temperate crops. Wheat occupies a large 
acreage, maize for export is beginning to thrive, and coffee plan- 
tations abound. Timber, largely of temperate woods, is abundant. 
The chief imports are cotton cloth, grain and flour, provisions, 
sugar, building materials, vehicles, machinery, tobacco, liquor, 
soap, hardware, etc. Exports are chiefly cotton, hides and skins, 
fibers, coffee, ivory, grain and oil seeds. It is difficult to separate 
trade figures from those of German East Africa and Congo ; but 
in 1916-17 the exports of these three were $7,209,385; imports, 
$15,120,615. 

Uganda Protectorate adjoins the last on the west, occupying 
from 5° north latitude to the equator, and from 30° to 37° east 
longitude; area, 109,119 square miles; population, 2,954,861. 
Parts of the country are greatly affected by sleeping sickness. 
The British capital is Entebbe, the native capital Mengo. The 
products are chiefly cotton, coffee, chillies, ghee, plantation rubber, 
ivory. Trade is chiefly with Great Britain, United States, and 
India. Imports are yarns and textiles, provisions, cotton blankets, 
bags and sacks, soap. Exports (1916-17), $5,384,620; imports, 
$6,480,500. 

The Zanzibar Protectorate is an island sultanate, including 
also Pemba Island, off the east coast of Africa. Area of Zanzibar, 
640 square miles; of Pemba, 380 square miles; population of 



. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 161 

Zanzibar, 114,000, of Pemba, 83,000 ; chief town and port, Zanzibar, 
a city of 35,000, in wliich a large part of the population is cen- 
tered. The islands were made a British protectorate in 1890; in 
1914 they were declared a British colony and were transferred 
from the foreign to the colonial office. Zanzibar is an entrepot 
for the collection of commodities destined for shipment from the 
neighboring islands and coast regions to foreign countries and 
for the local distribution of foreign imports. Races, chiefly 
Negroes, Arabs, and Jews. Cloves, copra and ivory are the chief 
products. Imports are piece goods, rice, groceries and provi- 
sions, sugar, copra, grain. Exports (1916), $5,260,835; imports, 
$6,499,100. 

British Guiana: — see British Possessions; America, p. 164. 

British Honduras. — In northeast Central America, adjoining 
Mexico. Latitude 18°-16° north, longitude 89°-88° west; area, 
8,598 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 42,400; capital 
and chief business center, Belize. Settled in 1638 by logwood 
cutters who had been sea rovers of unsavory reputation. After 
various attacks by the Spanish, which were repelled, treaties 
with Spain, Mexico, and Guatemala made the territory a British 
crown colony. The country consists chiefly of primeval forests, 
with savannas and open sandy plains covered with a wiry grass 
and dotted with pine trees. The soil is exceedingly rich, and 
sugar-cane is the chief crop. The best of cacao trees grow wild in 
the bush. Staple products are natural woods, mahogany, log- 
wood, and many excellent cabinet woods. The cutting and ship- 
ment of these have been the chief industry for more than two 
centuries. These have been the chief exports, and they have gone 
almost wholly to Great Britain. Another important export is 
chicle (gum). The imports are mainly cotton goods, foodstuffs, 
and machinery from Great Britain. There are some thriving 
sugar estates, and large coffee plantations have been started. 
Fruits are rapidly and extensively grown. Exports (1913-14), 
$3,213,000 ; imports, $3,273,800 ; later years show lower figures. 

British North Borneo: — see British Borneo, p. 159. 

British Possessions. — The dependencies and colonial posses- 
sions of Great Britain include about one-third of North America 
and Africa, a large area in southern Asia, all of Australia, and 
many groups of islands scattered throughout the world. The 



162 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLEl 

vast scale of their area, population and trade may be seen from 
the following table, compiled for the fiscal year 1916-17: — 



Continent 


Area 

Square 

Miles 


Population 


Exports 


Imports 


Africa 


3,487,725 
4,010,216 
1,972,306 

3,192,755 
120 


53,816,000 

10,833,000 

324,374,000 

6,567,000 
240,000 


$487,920,000 
1,517,685,000 
1,410,575,000 

669,475,000 
2,955,000 


$504,750,000 

993,365,000 

1,139,880,000 

519,800,000 
16,690,000 


America 


Asia 


Australia and Aus- 
tralasia 


Europe 




Total 


12,663,122 


395,830,000 


$4,088,610,000 


$3,174,485,000 





Of the British dependencies, the major ones and their sub- 
divisions are described separately, in proper alphetical order. 
The following descriptions apply to minor possessions. 

Africa. — Ascension Island is a small volcanic peak southwest 
of Africa and 700 miles northwest of St. Helena. Latitude 8° 
south, longitude 14° 20' west; area, 34 square miles; population 
(1914), 196; a naval station and sanatorium. It is a breeding 
place for sea turtles, in the eggs and meat of which there is a 
small commerce. 

Mauritius (Isle of France) is an island in the Indian Ocean, 
about 500 miles east of Madagascar; once a French possession, 
but a British colony since 1814; area, about 720 square miles; 
population (1917), 384,253; capital, Port Louis, estimated, 50,000. 
The population consists mainly of Hindus, but there are many 
of Malay and African descent. The people of European descent 
are French and English. Sugar and hemp are the exports. 
Railways connect the various centers of population. Steamship 
lines connect the island with British ports. Exports (1916), 
$29,770,015; imports, $17,988,970. 

There are several administrative dependencies. The Chagos 
Islands, latitude 6°-7°30' south, longitude 71°-72°30' east; 
largest island, Diego Garcia, with 517 inhabitants (1911); popu- 
lation, Negroes from Mauritius; cocoanut oil exported. Rodrigues 
Island, 20° south, 63° 30' east; area, 40 square miles; population 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 163 

(1911), 4,829. Exports (1916), $106,300; imports, $57,330. St. 
Brandon (Cargados) Islands, 16° 32' south, 59° 37' east, chiefly 
barren sand banks; Trois Freres (Eagle) Islands, about which 
little is known. 

Nyassaland Protectorate (formerly British Central Africa). 
Latitude 9°30'-17° south, longitude 33°-36° east; lies west and 
south of Lake Nyassa; area, 39,573 square miles; population 
(1916), 1,141,122, mostly natives; seat of government Zomba. 
Products are coffee, tobacco, cotton, tea; cattle abundant. Im- 
ports, textiles, hardware and provisions; exports, coffee, cotton, 
bees' wax, rubber, ground nuts. Exports to Great Britain 
(1916-17), $1,431,675; imports, $1,429,470. 

St. Helena is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic, about 
1,700 miles northwest of Cape Town. Latitude 16° south, longi- 
tude 5° 45' west; area, 47 square miles; population (1914), 3,553. 
The island was a Portuguese possession from the time of its dis- 
covery in 1502, a Dutch possession from 1645 to 1651, and a 
British East India Company holding for nearly two hundred 
years, during which time the plantations were cultivated by Negro 
slaves. In 1815 it was the place of exile of Napoleon Bonaparte, 
who died six years later. In 1836 slavery had become past his- 
tory, and about that time the island became a Crown Colony. St. 
Helena is a British coaling station and military post. Potatoes and 
other vegetables are sold to passing vessels, the trade being consid- 
erable. New Zealand flax and tow are the chief exports. Lace 
and flax fabrics are manufactured. Exports (1916), $123,180; 
imports, $232,570. 

The Tristan da Cunha Islands are a small group in the South 
Atlantic, midway between South America and the Cape of Good 
Hope. Latitude 37° 6' south, longitude 12° west; area a few 
square miles; population (1917), 105, chiefly shipwrecked sailors 
and their families. There is little industry, and no trade. 

Seychelles Islands; an archipelago of 90 islets in the Pacific. 
Latitude 4°-6°30' south, longitude 53°-56° east; area, estimated, 
156 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 24,000; seat of 
administration, Victoria, a coaling station of the British navy; 
chief island, Mahe (55.5 square miles). The islands were discov- 
ered in 1502, and formally annexed as a British possession in 
1744. They were not inhabited when annexed. The present popu- 



164 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

lation consists of East Indians, Chinese and Negroes. The Eng- 
lish contingent is small. Copra, vanilla, soap, gnano, and culti- 
vated rubber are the chief exports, and these are cleared mainly- 
through Mauritius. Imports, foodstuffs, clothing, liquors. Ex- 
ports (1916), $557,415 ; imports, $495,475. 

British Somaliland Protectorate. Latitude 11° 30-8° north; 
longitude 42 ° 30'-49 ° 30' east, lying along the south side of the 
Gulf of Aden; area, about 68,000 square miles; population, 
300,000 nomads; chief town, Berbera, 30,000 (1911). Imports, 
chiefly rice, textiles, sugar, dates; exports, hides, gum and resin, 
cattle. Exports (1916-17), $1,100,205; imports, $1,509,955. 

America. — The Bermudas comprise a colony of 360 small 
islands, of which only about 20 are inhabited, 580 miles east of 
North Carolina. Latitude 62° 30-62° 10' north, longitude 65°- 
64° 30' west; total area, only 19.3 square miles; population (1917), 
20,215; chief town, Hamilton (2,627). An important naval base; 
exports, onions, potatoes, flowers; imports, food, cutlery, coal, 
clothing, leather goods, draught animals. Trade almost entirely 
with United States. Exports (1916), $699,075; imports, $3,673,995. 

Falkland Islands; a group of continental islands off the east 
coast of South America, 300 miles east of Magellan Straits. Lati- 
tude 52° south, longitude 60° west. They are a Crown Colony of 
Great Britain, to which are attached also South Georgia, the South 
Orkney, South Shetland, Sandwich Islands and Graham's Land; 
area, estimated, 6,500 square miles; population, estimated, 3,500; 
seat of government, Stanley, 950. South Georgia Islands are a 
whaling settlement. Latitude 54°-55° south, longitude 46°-42° 
west; area, 1,000 square miles. 

The Falklands consist of West Falkland (2,300 square miles). 
East Falkland (3,000 square miles), and about 125 small islands 
totalling 1,000 square miles. Cattle and sheep farming are 
the only industries, and the value of exports per capita is very 
high. The islands are of strategic importance. Imports, gro- 
ceries, timber, coal, clothing, hardware; exports, whale products, 
wool, tallow, hides. Exports (1916), $10,268,595; imports, 
$2,955,085. 

British Guiana is a colony. Latitude 8° 20'-l° 15' north, longi- 
tude 61°30'-56°40' west; area, 89,480 square miles; population, 
estimated (1916-17), 314,000; capital, Georgetown, 54,723. The 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 165 

low coastal plain, hot and fertile, is covered with plantations, 
cultivation being confined chiefly to this narrow zone, where most 
of the people live. Farther inland the country becomes hilly 
and mountainous, with wide forest areas and valuable gold mines. 
The short Demerara railroad, the first to be built in South 
America, was constructed to meet the needs of the sugar industry, 
which, with rum and molasses, was long the great industry of 
the country. Cheap sugar has so seriously injured the industry 
that many planters have abandoned sugar for the cultivation of 
tobacco and rice. Gold, rubber, sugar and rice are sent to Great 
Britain and the United States; the imports consisting of food- 
stuffs and general manufactures. Races, East Indian coolies, 
Negroes, Chinese and Indians. Exports (1916), $18,790,330; 
imports, $12,359,720. 

Asia: — Aden is a volcanic peninsula on the southern tip of 
the Arabian coast. Latitude 12° 40' north, longitude 45° east; 
area, 75 square miles, or with the Protectorate behind, 9,000 square 
miles; population (1911), 46,165. An important coaling station, 
and strategically of the utmost importance. Chief industries of 
Aden proper are salt and cigarette making; trade largely transit. 
Imports, cotton and cloth, grain, hides, coffee, sugar, tobacco, 
fruits, vegetables and provisions, coal; exports, coffee, gum, 
hides, cotton goods, tobacco, grains, sugar, provisions. Exports 
(1916), $23,125,305; imports, $27,136,130. 

Perim, attached to Aden, is an island at the narrow entrance 
to the Red Sea, and commanding its water; area, 5 square 
miles. 

Kuria Muria Islands. Latitude 17 ° 30' north, longitude 55 ° 30'- 
56° 30' east, off the southeast coast of Arabia. Islands are five in. 
number, secured by England for a landing place for the Red Sea 
cable; they are attached to Aden. 

Sokotra Island. Latitude 12° 30' north, longitude 54° cast; 
130 miles southeast of the Arabian coast and on a direct 
line from Suez to India; area, 1,382 square miles; population, 
about 12,000, mostly farmers and fishers. Formerly Turkish, 
became British in 1876 by treaty, as a way-station of the Suez- 
India route. Products, dates, gum, sheep and cattle; butter, the 
latter exported. It is attached to Aden for administration. 

The Bahrein Islands, eight in number, lie in the Persian Gulf. 



166 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Latitude 20° north, longitude 50° 30' east; Bahrein, the largest, 
10 by 27 miles; population of group, 103,000. Harbor facilities 
excellent. Industry chiefly pearl fishing; dates and white donkeys 
are other products; sail cloth and reed mats manufactured. Im- 
ports, pearls, rice, coffee, sugar, tea, cloth; exports, pearls, rice, 
coffee, tea, sugar, dates. As would be indicated by these lists the 
trade is mainly transit. 

British Borneo occupies the northern coast of Borneo, and 
some small islands adjoining on the north. Latitude 7° 30'-(3° 40' 
north, longitude 109° 45'-119° 30' east. British North Borneo, 
obtained in 1881, occupies the northeastern end; area, about 
31,106 square miles; population (1911), 208,183, largely aboriginal 
tribes. Interior wild and mountainous; trade chiefly through 
Singapore and Hong Kong with Great Britain and the colonies 
Products varied and tropical-timber, copra, gum, rubber, cam- 
phor, spices, rattan, vegetables and tobacco. Exports, all these 
and birds nests ; timber is the greatest natural resource. Exports 
(1916), $5,070,710; imports, $1,049,665. 

Brunei lies southwest of the territory just described; area, 
about 4,000 square miles ; population, estimated, 30,000. Imports 
chiefly rice, tobacco, cloth; exports, coal, rubber, sago, cutch' 
Exports (1916), over $425,000; imports, over $150,000. 

Sarawak occupies the southwest part of British Borneo; area, 
about 42,000 square miles; population, estimated, 500 OOo' Be- 
came British in 1842. Coal and other minerals abundant- oil is 
being developed. Trade mainly with Singapore. Exports, sago 
flour, pepper, gold, petroleum, plantation rubber. Exports (1916)' 
$5,666,785; imports, $4,087,680. 

Ceylon is an island colony southeast of the southern tip of 
India and about 30 miles from the mainland. A narrow ridge 
known as Adam's Bridge, spans all but about 12 miles of the dis- 
tance between the island and the mainland. Latitude 9°30'-6° 
north longitude 79° 30'-81° 45' east; area, 25,332 square miles; 
population (1917), estimated, 4,547,200; capital, Colombo, 211,274 
1911); chief port, Galle, 39,960; other cities-Jaffna, 40 441- 
Kandy, 29,451. Authentic history of Ceylon begins with the 
Hindu mvasion of the fifth century, B.C. Portuguese merchants 
established settlements in 1505, which were taken from them by 
the Dutch. In 1801 Ceylon was made a British possession- in 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 167 

1815 it became an organized colony; in 1833 a constitution was 
framed. About one-eighth of the land is under cultivation. The 
crop of rice and other grains is used for home consumption. The 
export crops and products are coir, cacao, coffee, cinnamon, tea 
and rubber, the two last named being the most valuable. Imports 
are cotton goods, rice, coal and coke, liquor, sugar, manure. The 
graphite of Ceylon is of fine quality and is much used in manu- 
factures; over 950 mines are in operation. Monazite and gems 
are mined. Railways connect the important industrial centers 
with Colombo and Galle. The Singhalese form the greater part 
of the population, but there are many Malays and a few Veddahs, 
or aboriginal peoples. Exports (1916), $99,180,385; imports, 
$73,343,630. 

The Maldive Islands, a dependency of Ceylon, are a group of 
13 coral islands, chiefly atolls, southwest of the southern tip of 
India. Latitude 7°6'-0°42' north, longitude 71°-74° east; popu- 
lation, estimated, 70,000, all Mohammedans. The people are of 
superior civilization and skillful as navigators and traders. Coir, 
cocoanuts, copra and tortoise shell are exported. No trade sta- 
tistics. 

Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, 
40 miles south of Asia Minor and 60 miles west of Syria. Lati- 
tude 35° 40-33° 30' north, longitude 32° 20-34° 35' east; area, 
3,584 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 298,775; capital, 
Nicosia, estimated, 16,000. There are no good harbors. The his- 
tory of Cyprus extends back probably 3,000 years before the Chris- 
tian era. More than once Egypt made a conquest of the island 
in order to obtain its treasure of copper mines. It was also a 
possession successively of Greece, Persia, Pha^nicia and Turkey. 
The anglicized word copper is derived from the Greek form of 
Cyprus. The island came under the control of Great Britain in 
1878, and was formally annexed in 1914. The mineral wealth of 
Cyprus consists of copper, salt, gypsum and marble. The chief 
interests are agricultural — wine, fruits, grain, barley, silk, olives, 
cotton, cattle, wool, hides. There are no railways. Chief imports, 
sugar, raw coffee, wheat and flour, olive oil, rice, tobacco, petro- 
leum, cotton and cotton goods, woolen goods, clothing, leather 
and its goods, soap; exports, animals, carobs, wine, raisins, cot- 
ton, silk cocoons, wool, hides, pomegranates, citrous fruits. The 



168 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

population consists mainly of Greeks and Turks. Exports (1916), 
$3,542,230; imports, $4,838,900. 

Hong Kong, an island colony, situated at the mouth of Canton 
River in China. Latitude 22° 5' north, longitude 114° 10' east; 
area, 32 square miles; population (1911), 366,145; ceded to Great 
Britain in 1841; the great center of British trade with China and 
Japan, and strategically important as well. In 1898, Great Britain 
leased for 99 years a mainland area of 356 square miles, popula- 
tion, 96,500 (1916), called the New Territories; in addition, Old 
Kowloon has 3 square miles area. Hong Kong is a free port; 
trade mainly with Great Britain (one-half the total), India, Aus- 
tralia and United States. The variety of trade is great : — among 
the exports, preserved ginger, silks, drugs, feathers and down, 
tin; imports, cottons, woolens, iron and steel manufactures, ma- 
chinery, tobacco. No trade statistics, but the volume is great. 

The Straits Settlements are a Crown Colony of 1,000 square 
miles, composed of Singapore, Penang, the Bindings, Malacca 
and Labuan; and Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands. The 
four first named are located on the west side of the southern part 
of the Malay Peninsula. Singapore is an island at the tip of the 
peninsula. Latitude 1°15' north, longitude 103° 15' east; area, 
217 square miles, and attached to its administration are a number 
of adjacent small islands. Penang is an island, the northern- 
most of the areas. Latitude 4° 25' north, longitude 100° 20' east; 
area 108 square miles ; on the adjacent shore is Wellesley Province, 
a narrow strip of 280 square miles area, forming part of Penang; 
chief town of Penang is Georgetown, on the island. The Din- 
dings is an area on the coast of Perak, a strip of mainland 
together with the island of Pangkor. Latitude 4° 20' north, longi- 
tude 100° 40' east. Malacca lies between the Dindings and Singa- 
pore, a strip of mainland 42 miles long and 8 to 24 broad. Lati- 
tude 2° 12' north, longitude 102° 15' east. Population of the whole 
colony (1917), including Christmas, Cocos-Keeling and Labuan 
Islands, 812,793. The ports are all free, and the trade chiefly 
transit. Exports, mainly tin, spices, sago and tapioca, hides and 
horns, rattan, rubber, gum, copra. Exports (1916), $287,181,820; 
imports, $316,210,370. 

The Cocos or Keeling Islands are a group of a score of small 
coral islets. Latitude 12 ° 6' south, longitude 96 ° 55' east ; popu- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 169 

lation (1916), estimated, 807. Christmas Island, latitude 10° 31' 
south, longitude 105° 33' east; area, about 80 square miles; popu- 
lation (1916), 1,909. Probably never inhabited before its occu- 
pation by whites in 1897. Phosphate of lime is the only resource. 
Exports (1916), $565,265; imports, chiefly machinery, tools and 
traction plant, $175,600. Labuan Island lies close to the north- 
west coast of British Borneo. Latitude 5° 17' north, longitude 
115° 15' west; area, 28.5 square miles; population (1916), esti- 
mated, 6,862, chiefly Malays and Chinese traders. 

The Federated Malay States are four, occupying a large part 
of the Malay Peninsula. Latitude 6°-l°40' north, longitude 
100° 30'-104° 20' east; area, 27,506 square miles; population 
(1911), 1,037,000. Chief products, cocoanuts, rice, rubber, sugar, 
spices, tapioca. Rubber is cultivated, and tin extensively mined, 
much of the world's supply of the latter being obtained here. The 
country is rich in other minerals. Imports, chiefly rice, opium, 
tobacco, cotton goods, sugar, condensed milk, animals, liquor, 
petroleum and benzine, iron wares, machinery; exports, tin and 
tin ore, rubber, copra, rice, tapioca, coffee. Exports (1016), 
$128,300,485; imports, $40,512,340. 

The Unfederated Malay States are five, lying largely at the 
north of the Federated States, on the border of Siam. Their total 
area is about 23,400 square miles; population, estimated, 970,000. 
The industries and trade are practically those of the other states. 
Exports (1916), $26,470,000; imports, $8,655,000. 

Weihaiwei is in the Province of Shantung, China; and with 
adjacent water was leased by Great Britain in 1898. The terri- 
tory includes a number of islands and a zone ten miles broad 
around the bay. Latitude 37° 30' north, longitude 122° 30' east; 
area, 285 square miles; population (1911), 147,177. The place is 
a naval base of great strategic importance. The country is agri- 
cultural and prosperous. Cereals and temperate latitude fruits 
are cultivated; and silk, the worms being fed on oak leaves. 
Imports, chiefly kerosene, flour, sugar, liquor, provisions, coal; 
exports, ground-nuts, seeds and oil and salt fish. The port is free. 

Australasia: — In the Australasia-Oceania region of the Pacific 
Ocean, Great Britain, possesses a large number of islands and 
island groups, widely scattered in latitude and longitude. 

The Territory of Papua (British New Guinea) includes the 



170 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

southeastern part of New Guinea, the D'Entrecasteaux and 
Louisiade Islands, and all those islands between 8°-12° south 
latitude and 141°-155° east longitude; total area; 90,540 square 
miles (Papua proper, 87,786); population (1917), estimated, 
201,374, of which 1,036 were Europeans. Latitude of Papua 
proper 5°-9° 15' south, longitude 140° 50-151° east. New Guinea 
became British in 1887. Timber is abundant, and the planting 
of cocoanut palms extensive. Minerals form a large asset, gold 
mining being an important occupation; copper also is exported. 
Petroleum underlies at least 1,000 square miles. Trade chiefly 
with Queensland and New South Wales ; chief ports. Port Moresby, 
Samarai, Daru. Imports, foodstuffs, tobacco, hardware; exports, 
copra, sisal hemp, pearl shell and pearls, gold, sandal wood, cop- 
per ore, timber, rubber. Exports (1916-17), $782,675; imports, 
$1,358,200. 

The Louisiade Archipelago extends southeastward from New 
Guinea, numbering over 80 islands, with many coral reefs between. 
Latitude 12° south, longitude 152°-154° east. Gold occurs on at 
least two of the largest islands; tropical forests abundant. The 
D'Entrecasteaux Islands are a group of volcanic peaks north of 
the southeastern tip of Papua, and north-northwest of the 
Louisiades. Latitude 9°-10° south, longitude 150°-152° 
east. 

Fiji is an island colony, comprising over 200 islands, 80 
inhabited. Latitude 12°-20° south, longitude 177° east-178° west; 
area Viti Levu, 4,053 square miles; Vanua Levu, 2,130 square 
miles; total area, 7,435 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 
163,565, of whom not more than 4,000 were Europeans; capital, 
Suva, on Viti Levu; European population, 1,376. Discovered by 
Abel Tasman, 1643; visited by Cook, 1773; surveyed by a United 
States exploring expedition, 1840; ceded to Great Britain by chiefs 
and people, 1874; island of Rotumah added, 1880. Cultivation of 
sugar cane and tropical fruits, and manufacture of sugar and 
copra, are the principal industries. Practically all the trade is 
carried on with British ports. Exports, sugar, fruit and copra; 
imports, textiles, foodstuffs, oils, machinery and domestic wares. 
Regular steamships connect Suva and Levuka with New Zealand, 
Australia and Honolulu. Exports (1916), $11,270,215; imports, 
$4,392,500. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 171 

Tonga (Friendly) Islands form an archipelago of about 150 
volcanic islands in the South Pacific in three groups. Latitude 
15°-23°30' south, longitude 173°-177° west; area, 250 square 
miles; population, estimated, including 380 Europeans, 23,000. The 
islands are a native kingdom, and became a protectorate of Great 
Britain in 1899. A British commission exercises civil and criminal 
authority over subjects of foreign powers. The chief exports are 
copra, bananas, oranges, fungus and live stock. They clear from 
the port of Tonga to Auckland. Imports are cloth, foodstuffs, 
tinware. Exports (1916), $162,600; imports, $212,140. 

Many Pacific islands are attached to New South Wales or New 
Zealand; the following are unattached: 

Ducie Island. Latitude 21° 40' south, longitude 124° 48' west. 
Pitcairn Island. Latitude 25° 5' south, longitude 130° 5' west; off 
the end of the Paumotu Archipelago ; area 2 square miles ; popu- 
lation (1914), 140. The island is of social interest from the fact 
that it was settled by mutineers from the British ship Bounty, 
in 1790. The island was twice abandoned but again repatriated. 
It is self-supporting. Sugar, coffee and garden products are 
exported. 

Dudoza Island, 7° 40' south, 161° west; area, 2 square miles. 
Victoria Island; about 7° south, 161° west; area, 2 square miles; 
uninhabited. Phoenix Islands; 2°30'-4°30' south, 171°-174°30' 
west; eight islands; area, 16 square miles; population, 59; How- 
land Island, 1° north, 176° west, is an outlying member, valuable 
for strategic purposes. 

Gilbert and EUice Island Colony; protectorates from 1892 
and annexed as a colony in 1915. There are four groups: — (1) 
Union, or Tokelau Group, 8°30'-ll° south, 171°-172° west; five 
clusters of islets; area 7 square miles; population (1911), 914; 
(2) Ellice Islands, 5°30'-ll°20' south; 176°-180° east; nine prin- 
cipal and other smaller islands, Funafuti being the best known; 
area, 14 square miles; population (1911), 3,093; (3) Fanning 
Island, 3° 50' north, 150° west; area, 15 square miles; population, 
150; and Washington Island, 4° 40' north, 160° 20' west; area, 
6 square miles; and Ocean Island; (4) Gilbert Islands, crossed by 
the equator; longitude 170°-180° east; area, estimated, 166 square 
miles; population, estimated, 30,000. The chief islands are 17 
in number ; they were discovered in 1765 ; the natives are warlike 



172 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Polynesians. Principal crops, cocoanuts and pandanus fruit. 
Exports (1915-16), $916,240, chiefly phosphates and copra; im- 
ports, $543,915. 

The British Solomon Islands, about 8° south and 160° west, 
include 15 major islands and several groups of lesser ones — 
Low Howe, Santa Cruz and Duff or Wilson Groups, and some 
single islets; area, about 13,000 square miles; population (1915), 
estimated, 150,660. Crops are cocoanuts, rubber, sweet potatoes, 
pineapples, bananas. Imports, foodstuffs, boats, canned meats, 
timber, clothing, hardware, tobacco ; exports, copra, shells, mother 
of pearl. Exports (1914-15), $437,695; imports, $665,310. 

Starbuck Island, 5° 30' south, 155° west; area, 1 square mile; 
uninhabited. Maiden Island, 4° south, 155° west; area, 35 square 
miles; population, 168. Jarvis Island, 0° latitude, 159° west longi- 
tude; area, 1.5 square miles; population, 30. Palmyra Island, 
6° north, 162° 30' west* area, 1.5 square miles. Baker Islands, 
on the equator. These are mainly coral; cocoanuts and guano 
are their products. 

The New Hebrides Islands are under joint British and French 
administration, and are described under French Possessions. 

Europe. — Gibraltar. Latitude 36° 6' north, longitude 5° 21' 
west, in the Province of Andalusia, Spain. The famous Rock of 
Gibraltar is a Crown Colony; area, 1.875 square miles; popula- 
tion, including port and harbor (1917 estimate), 16,499, excluding 
military and naval forces. People are chiefly descendants of 
Spanish and Italian settlers. A naval base of great strategic 
importance, completely commanding the entrance to the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. Industries unimportant; trade chiefly transit, and 
bunker coal. 

The Island of Malta was annexed in 1814, and is one of the 
most important ports of call in the world, besides being an impor- 
tant naval base. It is the largest of the Maltese Islands. Lati- 
tude 36° north, longitude 14° 30' east; area, 91.5 square miles, or 
with two small adjacent islands, 118 square miles; population 
(1917), estimated, 223,741; chief town and port, Valletta. Prin- 
cipal products, potatoes, citrous fruits, onions, corn, cotton. 
Manufactures, cotton, filigree. The chief industry is farming, and 
many cattle are kept. Fishing is important. Transit trade pro- 
hibited. Imports, wheat, flour, cattle, butter and margarines, 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 173 

cheese, fish, fruits, liquor, meat, sugar, cotton goods, petroleum. 
Exports (1916-17), $2,955,515; imports, $16,692,460. 

British Solomon Islands: — see British Possessions; Aus- 
tralasia, p. 169. 

British Somaliland: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. 

British South Africa. — Consists of Basutoland, Bechuanaland 
Protectorate, and Rhodesia. 

Basuto is a rugged plateau. Latitude 28 " 45-30 ° 45' south, 
longitude 27°-29'30' east; area, 11,716 square miles; population, 
about 406,000. It came under British authority in 1884. Eu- 
ropean settlement is discouraged. The climate and soil have 
made the country an important grain and cattle center. The 
products are wool, mealies, kaPir corn, cattle. The imports are 
chiefly blankets, plows, clothing, iron and tin ware, groceries. 
Trade figures include all of British South Africa and the Union 
of South Africa. Exports (1916-17), $150,105,000; imports, 
$201,651,000. 

Bechuanaland Protectorate came within the sphere of British 
influence in 1885. Latitude 17 ° 30'-29 ° 30' south, longitude 
20°-29°30' east; area, 275,000 square miles; population, about 
126,000. Headquarters, Mafeking. Cattle-raising is the chief 
industry. 

Rhodesia has been British since 1889. Latitude 8°30'-22°30' 
south, longitude 22°-33''30' east; area, 440,000 square miles; 
population, 1,653,600. There are two quite distinct divisions. 
Southern Rhodesia is famous for its gold deposits, and has a good 
development of cattle-raising and agriculture. A large variety of 
minerals are found in workable quantity. The exports are gold, 
chrome iron, copper, maize, tobacco; the imports are live stock, 
foods, clothing, cotton goods, machinery. Total exports (1916), 
exclusive of gold, $6,397,000; imports, $12,269,000. Northern 
Rhodesia is a plateau, suitable for grazing and agriculture. The 
products are maize, cotton, tobacco, wheat, fruits, timber, and 
minerals. Exports are chiefly cattle, copper ore, corn, grain and 
flour, hides. Exports (1915), $782,230; imports, $801,855. 

British Virgin Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

British West Africa. — Comprises Nigeria, Gambia, Gold Coast, 
Ashanti and Northern Territories, and Sierra Leone. 

Nigeria, a colony and protectorate, has come into British 



174 GEOGEAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

possession at different times, beginning with 1861, Latitude 
14°-4° 30' north, longitude 3°-14° east; area, 336,000 square miles; 
population (estimated), 17,500,000. It is divided into northern 
and southern groups of provinces. The products are palm oil, 
rubber, ground-nuts, ivory, live stock, ostrich feathers, cotton, 
cocoa, coffee. Tin is found over a large area, and other minerals 
are promising. The chief imports are cotton cloth, liquor, bullion. 
Exports, palm kernels, palm oil, cotton, tin ore. Exports (1916), 
$•30,482,930; imports, $28,900,590. 

Gambia, a colony and protectorate, is a narrow strip extending 
inland from the west coast. Latitude 13° 30' north, longitude 
17°-14° west; area, 4,500 square miles; population, 146,000. 
Originally part of the West African settlements, it 'oecame a 
British colony in 1888. Capital, Bathurst. Chief imports, empty 
bags, cotton cloth, kola nuts, rice, tobacco; chief exports, ground 
nuts, hides, palm kernels. Value of exports (1916), including 
specie, $3,527,735; imports, $4,422,770. 

The Gold Coast Colony stretches along the Gulf of Guinea. 
Latitude ll°-5° north, longitude 3° west to 1° 30' east; area, about 
80,235 square miles; population, 1,500,000. Chief products and 
exports, palm oil, kola nuts, palm kernels, cocoa, rubber, man- 
ganese, woods, gold. Chief imports, cotton goods, machinery, pro- 
visions, clothing, liquor, building materials, motor cars. Exports 
(1916), $29,000,000; imports, $30,000,000. 

Ashanti is a part of the Gold Coast, British since 1896. Its 
chief features are an abundance of cabinet woods, rubber trees, 
and copal. It is eminently fit for agriculture. 

The Northern Territories form the northern part of the Gold 
Coast, British since 1901; capable of great agricultural develop- 
ment. 

Sierra Leone, a colony and protectorate. Latitude 10°-7° 
north, longitude 13° 30'-10° 30' west; area, 31,000 square miles; 
population, 1,400,000. Chief products, palm kernels, kola nuts, 
palm oil; chief imports, cotton goods, liquor, coal, tobacco, hard- 
ware. Value of exports (1916), $6,120,000; imports, $6,455,000. 

British West Indies. — Comprising six groups of islands : — 
Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica and Turks Island, Leeward Islands, 
Trinidad and Tobago, Windward Islands. Jamaica is described 
separately. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 175 

The Bahamas are a group, consisting of a score of inhabited 
and many uninhabited islands, southeast of Florida. Latitude 
27°-21° north, longitude 79°-69°30' west; area, about 4,404 
square miles; population, 58,484. Principal islands. New Provi- 
dence, containing Nassau, the capital (13,554); Abaco, St. 
Salvador, Long Island, Eleuthera, Andros. Industries are pearl 
and turtle fisheries, ambergris collecting, fruits. Exports, sponges, 
hemp, lumber, pineapples; imports, cotton, silk, linen and woolen 
goods, flour, hardware, sugar, lard, butter and oils, boots and 
shoes. Exports (1916), $1,665,000; imports, $2,375,000. 

Barbados lies to the east of the Windward Islands. Latitude 
13° 20-13° 2' north, longitude 59 ° 30-59 ° 25' west; area, 166 
square miles; population, 184,000. Mostly under cultivation; 
sugar and cotton the staple crops. Sugar and molasses are the 
chief exports; imports, coal, cotton goods, manure, flour. Ex- 
ports (1916), $11,035,000; imports, $9,255,000. 

The Leeward Islands lie north of the Windward Islands, com- 
prising Antigua, St. Kitts, Dominica, Montserrat and the British 
Virgin Islands, with lesser islands attached to Antigua and St. 
Kitts. Latitude 18° 45-15° 15' north, longitude 64° 45-61° 15' 
west; area, 715 square miles; population, 128,000. Dominica is 
the largest island (305 square miles), and Antigua next (108 
square miles) ; the remainder are small. The staple products are 
sugar and molasses, with lime juice, onions, tobacco and cotton. 
Exports (1916-17), $5,607,765; imports, $3,211,245. 

Trinidad lies at the mouth of the Orinoco River, and with it 
is associated Tobago. Latitude 10° 30' north, longitude 61° west; 
area, Trinidad, 1,754 square miles, Tobago, 114; population, 
372,000. Capital, Port of Spain (60,000). Noted for its asphalt 
lakes. Chief products, in addition, cocoa, sugar, rum, cocoanuts, 
petroleum; imports, foods, manufactures. Trade chiefly with 
United States and Great Britain. Exports (1916-17), $25,285,000; 
imports, $22,355,000. 

The Windward Islands comprise Granada, St. Vincent, the 
Grenadines, St. Lucia. Latitude 14°-12° north, longitude 61° 45'- 
60° 45' west; area, 527 square miles; population, 176,000. Each 
island has its own administration. The main products are cocoa 
and spices, arrowroot, rum, sugar, limes. Exports (1916-17), 
$5,255,000; imports, $4,000,000. 



176 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Brunei: — see British Borneo, p. 159. 

Bulgaria.— A Balkan state. Latitude 44° 10'-41° 15' north, 
longitude 22 ° 30-28 ° 40' east (new boundaries); area, 47,750 
square miles (1917); population (1917), estimated, 5,517,000; 
capital, Sofia, 102,812 (1910); other cities— Philippopolis, 47,981; 
Varna, 41,419; Rustchuk, 36,255; Slivno (Sliven), 50,600, Crossed 
by Balkan ranges, with the Danube plain in the north a: id a broad 
rich plain (East Rumelia) in the south. The Bulgarians are 
industrious and frugal people, 72 per cent, of whom are farmers. 
Cattle and sheep-herding are important; iron and coal are the 
chief minerals. It has a large trade in manufactured articles, and 
1,800 miles of railroad in operation. Freed from the Turkish yoke 
in 1878, many schools have been established, much progress made 
in all directions, and manufacturing is more advanced than in 
most Balkan states, especially in footwear, leather, woolen textiles 
and carpets. Races, two-thirds Bulgarians, one-seventh Turks, 
the remainder chiefly Rumanians and Greeks. Religion, chiefly 
Greek Church. Imports are chiefly cattle, cereals, metals, ma- 
chinery, textiles, hides; exports, wheat, maize, livestock, silk 
cocoons, hides, altar of roses, fruit, timber, tobacco. Exports 
(1914), $30,885,000; imports, $48,298,000. 

Territorial changes resulting from the war promise to be less 
than in any other enemy country. There may be a slight contrac- 
tion along the Serbian frontier, and the southern part of Rumanian 
Dobrudja, occupied by Bulgarians, may revert to the latter 
country. 

Caicos Island: — see Jamaica, p. 225. 

Cambodia: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. 

Cameroons, The: — see France, Mandatories of; and Great 
Britain, Mandatories of, pp. 196 and 210. 

Campbell Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Canal Zone: — see Panama Canal Zone, p. 250. 

Canada, Dominion of. — A British possession, with the ultimate 
executive authority vested in the British sovereign through a 
Governor General, and legislative functions in a parliament, of 
which the House of Commons is elected by popular vote. Latitude 
Arctic Ocean to 42° north, longitude 141°-52° west; area, 3,730,000 
square miles; population (1911), 7,207,000; capital, Ottawa, 
87,000; other cities— Montreal, 470,000; Toronto, 377,000; Win- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 177 

nipeg (1916), 163,000; Vancouver, 100,400, the chief Pacific port; 
Hamilton, 82,000; Quebec, 79,000; Halifax, the chief Atlantic port, 
47,000 (all 1911). Claimed as English territory by virtue of 
Cabot's discovery; settled at various places as a fur region during 
the seventeenth century; French claims ceded in 1763; organized 
as the Dominion of Canada, 1867. It includes nine provinces, 
British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New 
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, Alberta, the 
Northwest Territories, and Yukon. Eastern Canada is chiefly a 
broken plateau, low near the coast but rising to a considerable 
height in Labrador. The Hudson Bay region is low and flat, and 
plains, largely of prairie type, extend throughout the central 
provinces to the Canadian Rockies on the west. Thence to the 
Pacific the country is mountainous. The southern part of the 
eastern region, once heavily forested, has been largely cleared for 
farms. The central plain, extending into Athabasca, is a prairie 
with deep rich soil; it is one of the finest farming regions in 
the world; and the value of farm crops in 1917 was nearly 
$1,150,000,000. About 70 per cent, of the population are farmers. 
Wheat, oats, barley and maize are the grain crops. Fruit raising 
is important in Ontario and Nova Scotia. Wide areas of forest 
in northern Quebec and Ontario and in British Columbia yield 
great wealth in lumber, and the manufacture of wood pulp for 
paper making is very large. In 1916 the value of forest products 
was $190,000,000. The mountain region is the source of m.ost of 
the metals, although coal is mined on the east coast. Canada is 
one of the leading countries in the production of gold, silver and 
coal; it is among the first in the production of nickel. It is still 
one of the foremost fur-producing regions. In 1916, the mineral 
production was valued at $177,357,454. The Canadian Pacific, 
the Canadian Northern, and the Grand Trunk Pacific are trans- 
continental railways. The exports are mainly wheat, foreign 
produce, forest products, flour, meat, cheese, paper and pulp, oats, 
iron, copper, and furs. The trade is mainly with Great Britain' 
and United States. Exports (1916-17), $1,375,758,148; imports^ 
for homo consumption, $873,437,426. The fisheries employ 95,000 
persons, and the value of the products in 1916-17 was $39,000,000. 
The harbors on the Atlantic coast are nearer to European ports 
than are those of the United States by several hundred miles. 



178 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

On the west coast, Pacific ports are materially nearer to Japan 
than those of the United States. As a result, much com- 
mercial traffic between Asian and European ports passes in a 
direct line across the two oceans and Canada. The Great Lakes 
and the St. Lawrence River with their ship canals also have a 
great commercial traffic. Manufacturing requires over 21,000 
establishments, and the annual output exceeds $1,400,000,000. 
Races, British-American, French and Indian. Religions, Prot- 
estant and Roman Catholic. 

Vancouver Island is worthy of special notice. It is the largest 
of the mountain islands fringing the Pacific coast of Canada, 
lying immediately north of the Strait of Juan de Fuca; area, about 
20,000 square miles; capital, Victoria; population, about 55,000. 
The island is a part of British Columbia. 

Canary Islands: — see Spain, p. 268. 

Cape of Good Hope: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. 

Cape Verde Islands: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Cargados Island: — see St. Brandon, p. 264. 

Caroline Islands {German New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- 
tories of, p. 229. 

Caucasia. — In 1918, the people of Cis-Caucasia and Trans- 
Caucasia seceded from Russia, forming the Caucasian Republic 
and the Republic of Georgia. These have not been recognized by 
the Peace Conference, but it is likely that they may be allowed 
to form separate states. Latitude 46° 40-38° 20' north, longi- 
tude 36° 40-50° 30' east, reaching from the Sea of Azov and 
Black Sea to the Caspian; area, 156,000 square miles; population, 
estimated, 10,674,000. An unknown portion of the Black Sea part 
of Trans-Caucasia is expected to be allotted to Georgia, a new 
republic comprising the area inhabited dominantly by Georgians. 
The topography varies from the low plains between the Black and 
Caspian Seas to the high peaks of the Caucasus range. The 
climate is correspondingly varied. Both wet and arid parts of 
the country are found. Agriculture and stock-raising are the chief 
industries. Mineral resources are abundant and varied, and min- 
ing is important. The oil field of Baku is one of the greatest in 
Europe. Manufacturing is slight. Foreign trade is considerable, 
especially in petroleum. The chief cities are Tiflis, 328,000 ; Baku, 
237,000; Saliany, 121,000. 

Cayman Island: — see Jamaica, p. 225. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 179 

Celebes Islands: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Ceylon: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

Chacjos Islands: — see Mauritius, p. 235. 

Chandernagor: — sec French India, p. 197. 

Chalham, Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. 

Chile. — A South American republic. Latitude 17°-55° south, 
longitude 75°-68° west; area, 290,000 square miles; population 
(1917), 3,870,000; capital, Santiago (1916), 398,000; other cities- 
Valparaiso, the chief port, 201,500; Concepcion, 68,900; Iquique, 
45,500; Talca, 41,600; Chilian, 39,000; Antofagasta, 56,300. A 
Spanish colony from the period of Spanish conquest to 1818, when 
independence was made complete. 

The country lies west of the Andes Mountains, extending from 
Peru on the north to Cape Horn, a distance of 2,500 miles. The 
elevation of its eastern ])oundary, the Andes range, is from 13,000 
to 14,000 feet above the sea-level; many of its peaks rise higher. 
The greater part of the coast is studded with islands, some of 
which are very fertile. Chile is one of the most progressive South 
American states. Most of the farming activities are carried on in 
short river valleys. Much of the mesa lands between rivers 
is desert. The north is a rainless region — the desert of Atacama; 
the center has regular winter rains, and the south has an 
abundant rainfall and a cool temperature. Agriculture is pos- 
sible in the north onlj^ by irrigation of the river valleys; in cen- 
tral Chile, between Santiago and Valdivia, cereals thrive. Here 
also tobacco and the grape are cultivated. The central farm- 
ing region sends foodstuffs to the mining regions. Forests pre- 
dominate in the south, but are as yet little utilized. Stock raising, 
chiefly sheep, is increasing. The nitrate mines of the north and 
the copper mines of the mountain region furnish most of the 
exports. As many as 2,700,000 tons of nitrate have been exported 
during a single year. Most of it is used in the intensive farming 
of western Europe. Copper is the largest metal export, followed 
by silver and gold. Manufacturing industries, in which Chile 
is the foremost South American state, consist chiefly of flour, 
foundry products, steel goods, and textiles. As there is little inte- 
rior navigation, railroads are of great importance and are well 
developed. Steamers ply in the coast trade. Races — Spanish- 
American, European and Indian. Religion — Roman Catholic. 
Exports (1916), $190,594,275; imports, $83,445,310. 



180 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

The Juan Fernandez Islands form a group in the South Pacific 
400 miles off the coast of Chile, to which state they belong. The 
islands are of strategic importance only, and are now occupied by 
a radio station of great power. The reputed connection of 
Alexander Selkirk with the original of Robinson Crusoe is 
meretricious. The real Robinson Crusoe, or Kreutznaer, lived on 
the island of Tobago, near Trinidad. 

Easter Island lies in the South Pacific and belongs to Chile, from 
which it is distant about 2,000 miles. Latitude 27° south, longitude 
109° west; area, about 45 square miles; population, estimated, 150; 
at one time was several thousand. The island is famous for its 
wonderful archaeological remains of stone buildings and images, 
all of colossal size. The natives now on the island migrated from 
the Tubuai Islands; they have no knowledge of the origin of the 
remains, which were the work of a prehistoric race. In 1863 many 
of the inhabitants were kidnapped by Peruvians and carried off 
to work the guano diggings on the Church Islands, off the Peru- 
vian coast. 

China, Republic of. — Next to Siberia, the largest political divi- 
sion of Asia. Latitude 54°-18° north, longitude 74°-134° east; 
area, about 1,532,420 square miles; population, estimated, 302,- 
110,000; capital, Peking, estimated, 700,000; other cities — Canton, 
estimated, 900,000; Hankow, estimated, 1,321,000; Tientsin, esti- 
mated, 800,000; Fuchow, 624,000; Shanghai, estimated, 650,000; 
Chunking, estimated, 700,000. The early history of China dates 
back to at least 2,200 B.C. It is thought by some that Confucius 
— the Latinized form of K'ung-fu-tse — was contemporary with the 
Prophet Isaiah. The middle period begins about the year 1325, 
when European travelers began to visit the country. The Impe- 
rial period ends with the fall of the Manchu invaders and the 
beginning of the republic in 1912. 

China contains over one-seventh the population of the earth. 
Its civilization, arts and culture are the oldest in the world, and 
for centuries have been practically unchanged. It was about the 
last of the eastern nations to open its ports to the world. Western 
methods of manufacturing by improved machinery have been 
introduced. The rivers and canals are of great importance for 
transportation. Its largest cities stand on their banks, while 
many thousands of people live in boats which float on their sur- 
face. More than 5,900 miles of railway are in operation, and 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 181 

2,273 under construction. Trunk lines from Peking extend to 
the Trans-Siberian Kailway, to Shanghai, and to Hankow. The 
last named is completed nearly to Canton. 

Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Chinese Turkestan are de- 
pendencies of the republic. Tibet is high, cold and barren, except- 
ing in some of the lower lands in the south. Manchuria has fine 
and well-tilled agricultural lands in the south, raising large crops 
of wheat, beans and other produce. It is the most valuable part 
of the empire outside of China proper. Mongolia and Chinese 
Turkestan are arid and sparsely peopled. 

Rice forms the principal food in China; fish comes next. 
Domestic animals, excepting hogs and poultry, are of subordinate 
importance. Ninety per cent, of the people are engaged in agri- 
culture. Tillage of the soil is most intensive. Each family has 
only a half acre to two acres, and the hoe takes the place of the 
plow. The country is very rich in minerals, especially coal and 
iron; but mining methods are primitive, and the output is small. 
Tea, silks, soy beans, vegetable oils, and porcelains are the exports 
that connect China with the rest of the world. Cotton goods, rice, 
cigarettes, fish, metals and machinery are the chief imports. Great 
Britain has most of the trade. Religions — Confucianism, Bud- 
dhism and Taoism. Exports (191G), $401,498,000; imports, 
$430,339,000. 

Chinese Possessions. — China has several dependencies and 
frontier provinces, loosely connected with the republic. Chief of 
these are Manchuria, Tibet and Mongolia. 

Manchuria. Latitude 53° 30'-38° 30' north, longitude 115°-135° 
east; area, about 3G3,G10 square miles; population, approxi- 
mately 20,000,000; capital, Mukden (1G0,000). Railway facilities 
have increased greatly of late, and the cultivation of the soya bean 
has aided in a development more rapid than in any other part of 
China. Exports (1915), $142,07G,715; imports, $G3,355,915. 

Tibet. Latitude 39°-22° north, longitude 79°-101° east; area, 
4G3,200 square miles; population, estimated, 6,000,000; capital, 
Lhassa (15,000 to 20,000). Some agriculture is carried on, as well 
as stock raising. Hand weaving is common. Minerals mined are 
gold, borax and salt. Trade chiefly with China and India. Ex- 
ports to these amounted in 191G-17 to $2,380,000; imports are 
negligible. 



182 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Sin-Kiang consists of Chinese Turkestan, Kulja and Kash- 
garia, lying between Mongolia and Tibet; occupies 550,340 square 
miles; population, about 1,200,000. Parts near large rivers are 
under cultivation. Wool, cotton and silk are produced, and jade is 
worked. As a whole, the country shows much promise. 

Mongolia. Latitude 54°-32°30' north, longitude 82°30'-126° 
east; area, 1,367,G00 square miles; population, about 2,600,000. 
Inhabitants chiefly nomads, and whatever prosperity is found is 
due to Chinese immigrants. A vast territory can be reclaimed by 
irrigation. Some foreign trade is conducted, the exports being 
wool, hides, furs and horns. Exports from Urga, the chief center 
(1908), $4,950,000; imports, $7,900,000. 

Chinese Turkestan: — see Sin-Kiang, p. 267. 

Chosen (Korea). — A vassal state which is practically an integral 
part of Japan. Latitude 43°-34° north, longitude 130° 45'-124" 40' 
east; area, 84,738 square miles; population (1916), 17,500,000; 
capital, Seoul, estimated, 300,000; other cities — Ping-Yang, 173,000; 
Fusan, chief port, estimated, 25,000 ; Chemulpo, estimated, 13,000 
— all doubtful as to population. Thought to have been founded in 
the fourteenth century, Korea was under Chinese influence until 
1895, when China renounced her claim. In 1904 it became a vassal 
state of Japan; in 1910 it was formally annexed. A mountainous 
peninsula, about 600 miles long and 135 miles wide at its broadest 
part. The climate is mild and delightful. It has several excellent 
harbors. Most of the people are farmers ; agriculture thrives best 
in the southern half of the peninsula, rice and beans being the chief 
crops. The industry is greatly hampered by lack of room, as the 
valleys are narrow. In many localities mountain-sides are ter- 
raced and cultivated. Gold has been found in many places, and 
foreign companies, especially American, hitherto have worked 
mining concessions. These are now largely in the control of the 
Japanese. Ponies, wheelbarrows, and sedan-chairs are much used 
for freight and passenger traffic. A railway extending from 
Fusan is connected with the Peking branch of the Trans-Siberian 
Railway. A short branch line extends to Chemulpo. The various 
ports are open to foreign traders. Practically all commerce and 
manufactures are controlled by the Japanese. Religions, Bud- 
dhism, Confucianism. Imports largely cotton and silk goods and 
grasscloth, machinery, kerosene, sugar, paper, coal, timber; 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 183 

exports, rice, beans, bides, cattle, gold. Exports (191G), $294,- 
010,000; imports, $372,284,000. 

CJuistmas Island: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Cochin-China: — see Frencb Indo-Cbina, p. 197. 

Cocos Islands: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Colombia. — A Soutli American republic. Latitude 5°-12° 
soutb, longitude 78°-fi7° west; area, 440,846 square miles; popula- 
tion (1912), 5,100,000; capital, Bogota (1912), 121,300; otlier cities 
— Medellin, 71,000; Barranquilla, 49,000 (witb Puerto Colombia); 
Cartagena, 37,000; Manizales, 35,000. A Spanish possession dur- 
ing the period of Spanish conquest, it became independent of 
Spain in 1819, comprising at that time the territory now included 
in Venezuela and Ecuador. In 1832 the republic of New Granada 
was formed, and in 18G3 it became officially the United States of 
Colombia. Low plains and valleys in the north give abundant pas- 
turage to cattle. South of the Caribbean coast the ranges of the 
Andes cover about one-third of the state. The high plateaus 
among them yield wheat and other temperate crops. Rainfall is 
very heavy on the narrow Pacific slope, which is covered with 
dense tropical vegetation. East of the mountain region is a wide 
expanse of selvas (forested plains), rich in rubber, also llanos, or 
grass plains, where cattle graze. Coif ee of good quality is culti- 
vated at middle altitudes. The great differences in altitude give 
Colombia diversity of climate and a great variety of the vegetable 
products of the world. In the coast plains and river valleys the 
products are purely tropical; between 3,000 and 6,500 feet, maize 
and coffee predominate; between 6,500 and 10,000 feet, the climate 
is delightful, and wheat, vegetables and northern fruits are cul- 
tivated. Colombia is the source of the world's supply of emeralds. 
Gold-mining is an important industry. Wild and the cultivated 
rubber is an important product. Vegetable ivory, drugs, dye- 
woods and crude ru])ber are the chief items of foreign trade. The 
manufacture of *' panama " hats is an industry of considerable 
importance. The population live chiefly on the high plateaus and 
at the seaports. Few countries are so poorly provided with means 
of transportation. There are about 400 miles of railroad, almost 
no wagon roads, and only poor mule paths. The Magdalena River 
is navigable nearly to Honda, GOO miles, the Cauca to Caceres, 
and the Atrato to Quibdo ; but the most populous regions among 



184 GEOGKAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

the highlands are reached only by mule trains. The coast towns 
import wheat more cheaply than they can bring it from their own 
highlands. The few industries are centered around Bogota. Most 
of the foreign trade is carried on with the United States and Great 
Britain, Principal exports, coffee, hides, bananas, gold; imports, 
flour, lard, petroleum and cotton goods, chiefly from the United 
States. Races, Spanish-American and Indian, Religion, Roman 
Catholic. Exports (1916), $31,654,275; imports, $28,922,525. 

Commerson Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Comoro Archipelago: — see Madagascar, p. 234. 

Constantinople, State of. — It is proposed by the Peace Confer- 
ence to restrict the Government of Turkey to portions of Turkish 
territory in Asia Minor; and to erect an internationalized state 
comprising the area northwest and west of Constantinople, and 
a protecting strip on the Asiatic side. On the Black Sea coast the 
boundary with new Greece begins about at Midia, latitude 41 ° 40' 
north, and runs directly southwest to the mouth of the Maritza 
River, north of the Gulf of Zaros. It thus protects all the 
Dardanelles-Marmora-Bosporus section on the north. In Asia 
Minor the boundary with Turkey starts at the junction of the 
state of Constantinople and the vilayet of Kastamuni on the east, 
and describes a curved line to the head of a bay on the Sea of 
Marmora, near the village of Gemlik. The location of the two 
fragments lies, then, between 41 ° 40-40 ° 20' north, and 26°-31° 
east. The state will not bo self-supporting in a large commercial 
way, but is an artificial creation to escape a situation intolerable 
to humanity. By it, the Black Sea should be forever free to 
commerce. 

Cook- Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. 

Corisco Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. 

Costa Rica. — A Central American republic. Latitude ll°-8° 
north, longitude 86°-82° west; area, estimated, 23,000 square 
miles; population (1917), estimated, 441,342; capital, San Jose, 
35,654; other cities — Cartage, 12,900; Heredia, 8,200; Limon, At- 
lantic port, 6,700; Punta Arenas, Pacific port, 5,000 — all estimated, 
1915. An unorganized Spanish possession, which became a prov- 
ince about the end of the sixteenth century, and an independent 
republic in 1821. Two parallel mountain ranges cross Costa Rica, 
with the depression of Cartago between them. Several active vol- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 185 

canoes are in the northern range; among them Turrialba and 
Irazu are over 11,000 feet in height. The southern chain also has 
lofty mountains. A third of the popuhition live on the Pacific or 
dry side of the mountains, many having relations with the planta- 
tions that supply Costa Rica with more than half her exports. 
Coffee is the largest crop, and is noted for its excellence. Cattle 
are herded on the uplands, but the home supply of beef is not equal 
to the demand. San Jose, the capital, in the heart of the coffee 
district, is connected by rail with Limon, the Atlantic port. Coffee 
and bananas are the chief exports. Manufacturing is increasing. 
The steamships of the United Fruit Company carry fruit-cargoes 
to New Orleans, Mobile, New York, and Boston. The imports, 
largely cotton goods, wheat and flour, come mainly from the United 
States. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, Roman 
Catholic. Exports (1917), $11,382,000; imports, $5,595,000. 

Crete. — Also called Candia; an island southeast of Greece. 
Latitude 35° north, longitude 24°-26'' east; area, 3,330 square 
miles; population (1916), estimated, 320,000; seat of government, 
Canea (Khania), estimated, 25,000. The island was a vassal of 
Venice from 1211 to 1669, when it fell into the hands of the Turks. 
In 1898 it was made an autonomous state by Great Britain, 
France, Italy, and Russia; in 1913 its annexation to Greece was 
completed. Surveys have shown that the island is rich in minerals. 
The chief wealth is now derived from the plantations of olives, 
oranges, and lemons. 

Cuba.— A republic of the West Indies. Latitude 23°-20° north, 
longitude 85°-74° west; area, 44,215 square miles; population 
(1916), estimated, 2,627,536; capital and chief port, Havana 
(1916), 359,259; other cities — Cienfuegos, 82,000; Camaguey, 
93,000; Matanzas, 56,500; Santiago, 63,400; Manzanillo, 61,000. 
A Spanish colony from the time of its discovery by Columbus 
until 1898, when it became a republic. It is practically a protec- 
torate of the United States, which must approve treaties and 
national loans, reserving the right of intervention in case of revo- 
lution or of violation of treaty. 

Cuba, the largest island of the West Indies, and the largest 
fertile island of America, embraces nearly half the land surface of 
the West Indies. Its deeply indented coasts provide many excel- 
lent harbors, which form one of its great commercial advantages. 



186 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

In the west are the low mountains, Sierra de los Organos, on whose 
southern slopes, the Vuelta Abajo district, the most highly prized 
tobacco of Cuba is raised. In the east are highlands, where agri- 
culture is much diversified, but this region yields less for export 
than other parts of the island. Between the eastern and western 
mountains are the rich central plains that produce the great sugar 
crop of Cuba and give pasturage to large numbers of cattle. The 
climate is tropical, tempered by the northeast trade winds. The 
cities in which sanitary regulations are enforced are healthful. 
Sugar and tobacco are the principal export crops. About two- 
thirds of the tobacco crop is exported. Cocoanuts and bananas 
come from the eastern part of the island. The Juragua mines in 
the eastern part yield manganese iron ore which is extensively 
exported. About 2,000 miles of railway are in operation. Steam- 
ship lines connect Havana and Santiago with Spain, Great Britain, 
and the United States. Steamers in the coastal trade make the 
circuit of the island. The population consists chiefly of Spanish- 
Americans and Negroes. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. 
Havana is the chief tobacco and Matanzas the sugar port, the 
United States having the greater part of the trade. The principal 
imports are cotton goods, machinery, and cereals. Exports 
(1917), $357,040,000; imports, $261,377,000. 

Culebra Island: — see Porto Rico, p. 255. 

Curagao: — see Dutch West Indies, p. 189. 

Cyprus: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

Cyranaica: — see Tripoli and Cyranaica, p. 274. 

Czecho-SIovakia. — A new state of central Europe, comprising 
parts of Austria and Hungary occupied predominantly by Czechs, 
Slovaks and Moravians; and recognized by the Peace Conference. 
Its territory is that of Bohemia, Moravia, Lower Austria nearly 
as far south as the Danube, and part of northern Hungary. Lati- 
tude 51°-48° north, longitude 9° 30' to about 22° 30' east; area 
and population alike difficult to forecast, tentative figures being 
47,000 square miles and 17,500,000. Important cities, Prague, 
541,000 (1914); Briinn, 132,000. The situation of the country, 
entirely separated from the sea-way to world trade, is poor in 
the extreme; and a right-of-way through a foreign country must 
be secured for its foreign commerce. In order to safeguard inter- 
national interests, the German peace treaty of May, 1919, gives 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 187 

assurance of free access to the sea, through Trieste and Fiume 
on the south and through Hamburg and Stettin on the north. The 
natural resources, both of soil and minerals, are great. Agricul- 
ture is highly developed in the west, and mining is carried on in 
Bohemia and Hungary extensively. Wheat, barley, oats and rye 
are raised over large areas. Coal and lignite, gold, iron, copper, 
lead, zinc and graphite are all worked. Manufactures of many 
kinds, notably glass and its wares, and beer, are highly developed. 

Dahomey: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Damao {Daman or Damaun) : — see Portuguese India, p. 258. 

Danish Possessions. — Until recently, Denmark has had three 
colonial possessions : — Iceland, Greenland and certain of the 
Virgin Islands, popularly known as the Danish West Indies. The 
first has just declared its independence (see Iceland) ; the last 
has been purchased by the United States; there remain only the 
coastal strips of Greenland. 

Danish West Indies: — see Virgin Islands, p. 290. 

Denmark. — A limited monarchy, including the peninsula of 
Jutland and the nearby islands. Latitude 58°-54° north, longi- 
tude 8°-12°45' east; area, 15,600 square miles; population (1916), 
2,940,979; capital, Copenhagen and suburbs, 605,772; other cities 
— Aarhuus, 65,900; Odense, 45,000; Aalborg, 38,000. Founded as 
a kingdom in 1448. In 1852 the Great Powers of Europe guar- 
anteed its integrity. The kingdom is entirely lowland, and the 
west coast is protected from the sea by dikes at many points. 
The Baltic islands, excepting Bornholm, are flat and fertile, but 
large areas of moor and sand are met in Jutland. The climate 
is oceanic, mild for the latitude, but great storms sometimes lash 
the coasts. Agriculture and cattle breeding are the chief re- 
sources. Eighty per cent, of the land is productive ; the pastures 
are large and rich; and stock farming is the special sphere of the 
Danish farmer. The export of butter and eggs is enormous. The 
kingdom is poor in minerals and wanting in metals. Fishing is 
an extensive industry. Beet sugar is refined, flour mills are 
numerous, factories make sail-cloth, leather, and prepare tobacco, 
and the brewing and distilling interests are large. Copenhagen is 
one of the free ports of Europe, all goods admitted to the free port 
being exempt from customs duties. Thus they may be reshipped 
to foreign ports without examination, but if sent into Denmark 



188 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

outside of the free port, they must pay tariff charges. Copen- 
hagen and Odense, the chief centers of manufacture, produce also 
machinery, porcelain and cloth. The rail and wagon roads are 
adequate and excellent. Race, Danish. Religion, chiefly Lutheran. 
The chief trade is with Germany and Great Britain. Imports, 
metals and hardware, textiles, coal, cereals; exports, provisions, 
animals. Exports (1914), $241,000,000; imports, $220,900,000. 

D'Entrecasteaux Islands: — see Papua, p. 250. 

Desirade Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 

Diego Garcia Island: — see Chagos Islands, p. 179. 

Bindings, The: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Diu: — see Portuguese India, p. 258. 

Dominica: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Ducie Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Dudoza Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Dujf Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. 

Duke of York Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Dutch Borneo: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Dutch East Indies. — Colonial possessions of the Netherlands. 
Latitude 6° north-ll° south, longitude 95°-141° east; area, 
735,000 square miles; population (1912), 48,000,000; capital and 
commercial center, Batavia, 138,500; other cities — Soerabaya, 
157,000; Soerakarta, 118,400; Samarang, 97,000. The islands were 
held by the Dutch East India Company from 1602 to 1798, at which 
time they were taken over by the Dutch Government. This group 
of islands comprises Java, Madura, Sumatra, Dutch Borneo, 
Banca, Billiton, Celebes, Dutch New Guinea, the Riau-Lingga 
Islands, the Moluccas, and the Sunda Islands. Java, the most im- 
portant, produces large quantities of sugar, tea, coffee, indigo, 
cinchona bark, and tobacco. Sumatra produces the famous cigar- 
wrapper tobacco, used all over Europe and the American conti- 
nent, and a very choice coffee. The Dutch are very skillful in their 
colonial policy. They protect the natives from arbitrary oppres- 
sion and spoliation, and have made the East Indies an inex- 
haustible source of wealth for the mother country. The climate 
is tropical, but all the larger islands are mountainous, and cool 
retreats are accessible. Java is the most densely peopled land near 
the equator. Next to Cuba, it is the largest producer of cane- 
sugar, and the " old plantation " coffee is sent to all parts of the 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 189 

world. The island is the largest producer of quinine, and the tea 
plantations yield important returns. Sumatra's products are like 
those of Java, but it grows a far larger amount of tobacco. The 
products of the other islands are about the same as those of Java; 
Banca and Billiton furnish the major part of the world's tin 
supply. A large part of the spices, tortoise-shell and pearl-shell in 
the world's trade comes from the various Dutch islands. Four- 
fifths of all products are sent to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, where 
they are greatly enhanced in value by manufacture and prepara- 
tion for market. Dutch merchants sell these products in many 
lands, and send to the East Indies great quantities of cottons and 
other manufactures; so that the Dutch East Indies are the best 
customers of the Netherlands, excepting Europe. Races, Malayan 
and Chinese. Exports (1916), $361,732,000; imports, $186,000,000. 

The size and population of the various divisions follow : — Java 
and Madura 50,557 square miles, population (1912) 36,035,435; 
Sumatra 159,739 square miles, population 3,782,990; Riau-Lingga 
Archipelago 16,300 square miles, population 187,460; Banca 4,446 
square miles, population 118,653 ; Billiton 1,863 square miles, popu- 
lation 58,840; West Coast Borneo 55,825, population 467,158; 
Borneo, South and East Districts, 156,912 square miles, population 
905,300; Celebes Islands 72,070 square miles, population 2,677,690; 
Molucca Islands 195,653 square miles, population 1,061,072 ; Timor 
Archipelago 17,698 square miles, population 950,000; Bali and 
Lombok 4,065 square miles, population 1,207,310. 

The Molucca Islands deserve special mention. They are a 
group of volcanic islands crossed by the equator and the 130° 
meridian east, best known by the name of " Spice Islands." The 
islands are the chief source of many of the spices of commerce. 
Practically all the nutmegs come from the Banda Islands, a group 
of the Molucca archipelago. The people are mainly Malays. 
Spices are the chief exports and these are shipped from Batavia, 
Java. 

Dutch Guiana: — see Surinam, p. 270. 

Dutch Neiv Guinea: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Dutch West Indies. — Possessions of the Netherlands in the 
West Indies are Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, and Curagao. 

Surinam is situated on the north coast of South America, lati- 
tude 6°-2" north, longitude 58 ° 20-53 ° 50' west; area, 46,060 



190 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

square miles; population (1917), 91,622, exclusive of forest 
Negroes and Indians. Capital, Paramaribo, 38,190. Became 
Dutch in 1667, by treaty with England, and has been in English 
hands twice since for short periods„ Chief products, sugar, cacao, 
bananas, coffee, rice, maize, rum and molasses. Gold also is ex- 
ported, as well as balata, a rubber gum. Exports (1916), $3,355,- 
850; imports, $2,463,000. 

The colony of Curagao consists of six islands, of which Curasao 
(210 square miles, population, 1917, 34,168), is the chief. Latitude 
13° north, longitude 69 "-es" west; area, 403 square miles; popu- 
lation (1917), 57,381. Chief products are maize, beans, pulse, 
cattle, and lime phosphate. Exports (1916), $1,007,650; imports, 
$2,564,090. 

Eagle (Trois Freres) Islands: — see Mauritius, p. 235. 

East African Protectorate: — see British East Africa, p. 164. 

Easter Island: — see Chile, p. 179. 

East Falkland Island: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 

Ecuador. — A South American republic. Latitude 2° north-4° 
south, longitude 81°-73° west; area, 116,000 square miles; popu- 
lation, estimated, 2,000,000; capital, Quito, 70,000; other cities — 
Guayaquil, chief seaport, 105,000; Cuenca, 50,000; Riobaroba, 
18,000 — all estimated. Formerly a part of New Granada (Colom- 
bia), from which it separated in 1830. The constitution now in 
effect was adopted in 1906. 

Ecuador is so called because it lies under the equator. Its 
position and surface illustrate the influence of altitude on climate 
and production. On the narrow Pacific coast plain there are 
tropical forests, high grasses, rubber, cacao and other products 
of the hot lands. The people live in thin-walled houses. Seventy 
miles to the east is the high plateau of Ecuador, between Andine 
ranges, where the population is housed in stone and adobe dwell- 
ings amid fields of wheat, barley, potatoes and alfalfa. Farther 
east the land slopes to another forested tropical plain. The low- 
land east of the excellent port of Guayaquil and the plain of the 
Rio Guayas are a continuous garden, rich in tropical vegetation. 
Here sugar-cane is cultivated. Cacao is the principal wealth of 
the country, and Ecuador is the chief source of the world's supply. 
Cacao forms three-fourths of the total exports. The wheat-fields 
of the high plateau hitherto have been inaccessible because only 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 191 

mule paths connected the high with the low-lying regions. The 
railroad from Guayaquil to the plateau of Quito now reaches the 
grain-growing district. The eastern lowlands are rich in rubber 
and gold. The coast Indians produce the famous Panama hats 
from the fine straw of the toquilla, called Panama simply because 
they are forwarded to market through that port. There are few 
other manufactures except the products of a small number of 
woolen and cotton mills, saw mills, chocolate works, and soap 
factories. Most of them are at Guayaquil, the best harbor on the 
west coast of South America, which in the past has been exceed- 
ingly unhealthful. The imports are mainly manufactures and 
foodstuffs. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Exports, 1916, 
$18,075,800; imports, $9,599,000. 

Egypt— Latitude 32°-22° north, longitude 24°-36° east; area, 
estimated, 350,000 square miles; population (1917), 12,570,000, of 
whom about 275,000 are of European descent; capital, Cairo 
(1917), 785,000; chief seaport, Alexandria, 435,000; other cities- 
Port Said, Suez Canal port, 90,000; Tanta, 74,000; Damanhur, 
40,000; Mansura, 49,000; Asyut, 51,000. A kingdom in early 
biblical times, and probably the oldest organized nation in the 
world, Egypt was successively a Greek, a Roman, a Muhammadan, 
and a Turkish vassal state. From the time of the acquisition of 
the Suez Canal by the British, the influence of Great Britain be- 
came paramount. In 1914 Egypt became a British protectorate. 

The habitable and food-producing part of Egypt is confined to 
the flood plain and delta of the Nile, an area not materially greater 
than 12,000 square miles. The rest of the country is upland, the 
wind-swept Libyan desert, which is a continuation of the Sahara. 
The Nile traverses this desert, and where it overflows its flood 
plain or is carried by irrigation to the land, it covers the desert 
with luxuriant subtropical flora. It is thus the life of Egypt. The 
greater part of its waters comes through the Blue Nile from Abys- 
sinia, and the fertilizing silt is also chiefly derived from the eastern 
tributaries bringing rock waste from the Abyssinian highlands. 
Much water was wasted for centuries, because at flood time 
the Nile brings a larger supply than can be utilized, while at low 
Nile there is not sufficient water for the crops. This difficulty has 
been removed by the great dam built at Assuan, which impounds 
the surplus waters at flood, forming a great lake which at low Nile 



192 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

is run through the sluices and carried into the irrigation ditches; 
so that today Egypt is raising two to three crops from the same 
land each year where formerly only one crop was possible. Be- 
sides supplying food for its millions of inhabitants, Egypt is send- 
ing to American and European factories almost all the cotton it 
raises, a fiber of peculiar excellence. Wheat, maize and onions are 
also large export crops. The live-stock industry is subordinate, 
although many dromedaries, cattle, goats and poultry are raised. 
There is little mining, although gold is now being taken from the 
mountains east of the Nile. The Suez Canal made Egypt the con- 
necting link between Europe and eastern Asia, and stimulated its 
trade. Races, Egyptian, Greek, Italian, British and French. 
Religion, chiefly Muhammadan. Exports (1917), $250,380,000; 
imports, $163,175,000. 

Elhasa: — see Hasa, El, p. 215. 

Ellice Islands: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 

Eritrea: — see Italian Possessions, p. 222. 

Esthonia. — A new state proposed in the Peace Conference to 
be carved out of western Russia. As projected, it occupies all of 
the old government of Esthonia, south of the Gulf of Finland, 
part of western Pskof, and northern Livonia; and in a general 
way embraces the area occupied predominantly by Esthonians. 
Its location is latitude 59° 35-57° 15' north, longitude, including 
the islands of Osel and Dago off the west coast, 22°-28° east; area 
and population of old Esthonia, 7,605 square miles and 512,000; 
of the new country perhaps 16,000 square miles and 1,185,000. 
Principal city, Reval (or Revel), 137,000 (1913), a naval port of 
importance. The land is low, the soil chiefly a mixed glacial type, 
the climate severe. Agriculture is the chief industry, and is very 
scientifically administered. Cattle-raising flourishes. Crops are 
mainly rye, oats, barley, potatoes and other vegetables. Meat 
and butter are exported. A considerable number of manufac- 
tories have arisen. The dominant race, Esthonians, are allied to 
the Finns. 

Ethiopia: see Abyssinia, p. 142. 

Europe. — The smallest of the continents proper. Latitude of 
mainland 71° 6-36° north, longitude 9° 28' west-36° east; area, 
somewhat over 3,800,000, mth islands ; population, previous to the 
World War, approximately 400,000,000, giving a population 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 193 

density of 106 per square mile. The groups of islands in the 
Arctic Ocean belonging to Europe, ending with Franz Joseph 
Land, extend the boundaries of European territory far in that 
direction. 

Europe is a peninsula of peninsulas, with a coast line of 
extraordinary length — 20,000 miles without minor embayments, 
and nearly 50,000 miles when measured along the actual water 
front. The average elevation of the continent is low, and the 
lower portions of most of the streams are navigable. The resul- 
tant accessibility of the interior of the land has had a dominant 
influence upon the economic advance of many of the European 
nations. The population density, while high on the average, ranges 
from 1,000 in industrial regions to almost zero in rocky or desert- 
like areas. 

Taken throughout, Europe presents remarkable diversity of 
condition. The western portions are on the whole the most ad- 
vanced in the world; the eastern and southeastern parts are singu- 
larly backward. Topography has influenced this condition in part, 
and accessibility to the world's foreign markets more. The com- 
plementary position of western Europe and the United States — 
strategically located on opposite shores of the narrowest ocean, 
has stimulated greatly the economic advance of the parts adjacent 
to the common ocean highway. 

It is noticeable that, while a few European countries are chiefly 
agricultural, and early in economic stage, as Russia in 1914, even 
here parts had developed manufacturing to a considerable degree, 
as Russian Poland. Most of the countries listed as industrial have 
so large an amount of agriculture that they are as much char- 
acterized by the one activity as by the other. Great Britain has 
advanced farthest in this respect, her agriculture being relatively 
small and her manufacturing very extensive. 

Faeroe Islands: — see Denmark, p. 187. 

Falkland Islands: — see British Possessions; America, p. 164. 

Fanning Island: — see Gilbert and EUice Islands, p. 208. 

Fead Islands: — see Abgarris Islands, p. 142. 

Federated Malay States: — see British Possessions ; Asia, p. 165. 

Fernando Po Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. 

Fiji Islands: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169, 

Finland. — Formerly a grand duchy of Russia; proclaimed its 



194 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

independence on July 20, 1917; on October 7, 1917, it was declared 
a republic within Russia; and on December 9, 1917, it became an 
independent republic, now recognized by all the great nations. 
Latitude 70°-60° north, longitude 20° 15-33° east; area (1915), 
125,689; population (1915), 3, 277,100. Both area and population 
are likely to be somewhat augmented by the accession of Russian 
territory along the Arctic coast about 80 miles wide, with an 
area estimated at 10,400 square miles and a population numbering 
perhaps 16,000. At present there is no capital, Viborg and Vasa 
being used by the tAvo main factions engaged in civil war. 

Agriculture forms the occupation of a large part of the 
people; wheat, rye, barley, oats and potatoes being raised. Cattle 
are numerous. A large area is forested, the woods being of a 
fine quality of northern varieties. Most of the country is too flat 
for extensive water-power, but innumerable lakes are found, many 
of which could be made to furnish low falls. Internal communi- 
cation is largely by these chains of lakes; in addition, there are 
2,506 miles of railway. The only mineral worked is iron ore, a few 
thousand tons yearly being the output. Iron is made chiefly from 
imported ore. Considerable manufacturing has developed, chiefly 
wood industries, iron and mechanical works, textiles and paper. 
Foreign trade has been mainly with Russia and Germany. Im- 
ports are cereals, coffee, sugar, iron and its wares, cotton, 
machinery; exports, timber, butter, paper. Exports (1913, the 
best year), $75,899,815; imports, $92,893. 

Formosa: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 

France. — A republic of western Europe. Latitude 51°-42°20' 
north, longitude 4° 50' west-7°40' east. In 1914 the area was 
207,054 square miles; population, 39,602,258. The Peace Confer- 
ence has awarded to France 5,680 square miles, with an estimated 
population of 1,874,014; total area, 1919, 212,734; population 
(1919), according to normal increase should total 46,862,000; the 
actual figure is unknown; capital, Paris (1911), 2,890,000; other 
cities— Marseille, 551,000; Lyon, 524,000; Bordeaux, 262,000; Lille, 
218,000; Nantes, 170,500; Toulouse, 149,500; St. Etienne, 149,000; 
Nice, 143,000; Le Havre, 136,000. Under normal conditions, 42.5 
per cent, of the population of France is urban. 

The history of the country extends back to the Roman conquest 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 195 

of Gaul, a few years before the Christian era. The reign of the 
Bourbons (1589-1792) marks the period of chief development. 
France was twice a republic and twice an empire before the over- 
throw of Napoleon III in 1870, when it became a republic for the 
third time. 

W.ith the sea on three coasts, the republic is favorably situated 
for sea traffic with the western world and the orient. 

The greater part of France is lowland or occupied by mountains 
and dissected plateaus of only moderate height. A great plain 
starts at the Atlantic border with Spain and extends through 
western and northern France, thence eastward across Belgium, 
Netherlands, Germany, Poland and Russia. It is one of the 
world's great liighways. The eastern half, on the whole, is moun- 
tainous. The soil is nearly everywhere fertile. France has over 
150 rivers navigable for large or small craft, the most important 
being the Seine, Loire, Charente, Gironde, Adour, Rhone, Meuse, 
Somme and Moselle. Many excellent and convenient canals con- 
nect all the principal rivers. Navigation is confined mainly to the 
estuaries, except for river craft of very light draught. Many of 
the rivers are canalized. These with the regular canals furnish 
7,000 miles of interior navigable waters. There are thus about 
3,000 miles of canals, 5,500 of navigable rivers; for land transpor- 
tation there are 29,000 miles of national roads, beside a larger 
number of secondary roads; and 26,000 miles of railway lines. 
The delightful climate of France insures to agriculture a fortunate 
combination of central and south European conditions. More than 
half the surface is under cultivation, and nearly half the people 
live on farms, most of them so small that France has as many farm 
holdings as there are in the United States. There are many har- 
bors but few good ones, most of them being either shallow estu- 
aries or artificial harbors like Cherbourg. The sea trade is car- 
ried on chiefly through Marseille, Cherbourg, Le Havre, Boulogne 
and Bordeaux. Great improvements were made in the old har- 
bors during the World War, and a number of new ones created; 
this may affect future trade routes somewhat. Next to Russia, 
France is the largest wheat-growing country of Europe. Potatoes 
form the largest crop, succeeded by wheat, oats and beet-sugar. 
France is the greatest wine-growing country of the world. All 
domestic animals are raised scientifically, and dairy products have 



196 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

high reputation. The fisheries are very important, and sardine 
canning is one of the large industries. France has much coal in 
several basins, but chiefly along the Belgian border. Many of the 
mines were destroyed by the Germans, and the present supply is 
not equal to its demand. The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine has 
given the state its former iron mines, making it easily supreme 
in continental Europe, and the extension of its eastern boundary 
restores to it many thousand acres of excellent farming land as 
well. Moreover, Lorraine contains the western end of the Sarre 
coal field, now restored to France in full; and the remainder of 
the field has been placed under the League of Nations, virtually 
as French territory temporarily (738 square miles, population, 
234,200). This greatly improves the coal situation, as the mines 
were abandoned uninjured by the Germans in 1918. It will require 
five years for French mining to resume a normal position. A 
special point must be made of the acquisition in Alsace, near the 
town of Thann, of potash deposits that may yet break the Ger- 
man potash monopoly. Manufacturing is very highly developed. 
French silks, cottons and woolens are unsurpassed. Many classes 
of French goods, including porcelains, glassware and metal prod- 
ucts, are distinguished for good taste, elegance and finish. The 
Paris district particularly is noted for the production oi articles 
de luxe. Race, French; religion, Roman Catholic; trade, chiefly 
with United Kingdom, United States, Belgium, Germany, Algeria. 
Imports, chiefly cereals, coal and coke, metals, raw cotton, ma- 
chinery, woolen manufactures ; exports, silk manufactures, woolen 
goods, wine, motor cars, butter, wearing apparel, lace. Exports 
(1913), $3,114,840,000; imports, $3,829,020,000. 

France, Mandatories of. — Two of Germany's African colonies 
have been divided by the Peace Conference between Great Britain 
and France, the latter receiving by far the larger part of the ter- 
ritory. 

The Cameroons (ex-German Kamerun). Latitude (south of 
Lake Chad) 12°30' north-l°30' (Congo River) south; longitude 
8°30'-°18 east; area, 291,950 square miles; population, 3,540,000; 
seat of government formerly at Buea. The chief trading centers 
are Duala (22,000), Victoria, Kribi, Rio del Rey, and Campo. In 
1884, owing to trouble among the blacks, the resident foreign 
traders requested Great Britain to establish a protectorate. Upon 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 197 

her refusal, a successful appeal was made to Germany, The coast 
regions are fertile, supporting valuable tropical crops; cocoa, 
coffee, rubber, kola, oil palms. Hardwoods, especially ebony, 
abundant. Cattle raising is a success inland. Mineral resources 
scarcely known, but considerable in amount. Imports are textiles, 
liquor, timber, salt, iron utensils; exports, rubber, palm kernels 
and oil, cocoa, ivory. Exports (1912), $5,514,000; imports, 
$8,149,475. 

The only part of the Cameroons allotted to Great Britain is 
a narrow strip along the northwestern boundary, adjacent to 
Nigeria. 

Togoland. Latitude ll°-6° 15' south, longitude 0° 15' west-2° 
east; area, 33,700 square miles; population, 1,032,346; coast line 
only about 32 miles; capital and chief port, Lome. The German 
protectorate was established in 1884. A hilly country, except on 
the coast; much of the land grass-covered, some cultivated. Oil 
palms, caoutchouc and dye-woods grow inland; maize, tapioca, 
ginger and bananas are grown. Trade in palm kernels and oil, 
and gum; plantations of palms-, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rubber and 
fiber plants are in operation. Imports are machinery, rice, sugar; 
exports, cocoa, rubber, palm oil and kernels, cotton. Exports 
(1912, the highest year), $2,490,000; imports, $2,857,000. 

On the western side of Togoland, a narrow strip adjacent to 
Gold Coast and Ashanti has been allotted to Great Britain. The 
port of Lome is included in French Togoland. 

French Congo: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

French Equatorial Africa: — see French Congo, p. 197. 

French Guiana: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. 

French Guinea: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

French India: — see French Possessions; Asia, p. 202. 

French Indo-China. — Consists of five states: the Colony of 
Cochin-China, and the Protectorates of Annam. Cambodia, Tonking 
and Laos, Kwan-Chau-Wan, and the territory around Battambang. 
The region as a whole extends from 23° 15'-8°30' north latitude, 
and from 100° 15'-109° 30' east longitude. The total area is about 
256,000 square miles; population (1914), 16,990,230. The whole 
forms a single customs union. Exports (1916), $59,549,560; im- 
ports $46,866,480. The chief export is rice ; others are fish, pepper, 
cotton, sugar, rubber, coal. 



198 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Cochin-China occupies the southern end of the French posses- 
sions; area, 20,000 square miles; population (1914), 3,050,755; 
capital, Saigon (1915), 100,000; Cholon has 168,100. Rice is the 
chief product; rubber is cultivated somewhat; a large variety of 
fruits and vegetables is raised; the cattle industry is extensive. 
Fishing on the rivers and coast is active. Trade controlled by 
French and Chinese. Exports are rice, fish and their oil, cotton, 
copra, pepper, silk, hides; value (1916), $40,268,060; imports, 
$31,149,740. 

Annam lies above Cochin-China, on the east coast of the penin- 
sula; area, 52,100 square miles; population (1914), 5,200,000; capi- 
tal. Hue, 60,600; largest town, Binh-Dinh, 74,400. Products, rice 
and other cereals, mulberry, cinnamon, tobacco, sugar, manioc, 
bamboo and timber, coffee, dye and medicinal plants. Raw silk is 
a large industry, and extensively manufactured. Cattle-raising 
is growing. Coal and salt are produced. Imports, cotton goods, 
tea, oil, paper articles, tobacco; exports, sugar, cotton and silk 
cloth, rice, cinnamon, tea, paper. Exports (1916), $887,650; im- 
ports, $1,165,000. 

Cambodia adjoins Cochin-China on the northwest; area, 45,000 
square miles; population (1914), 1,634,252; capital, Pnom-Penh, 
62,255. Products, rice, tobacco, indigo, pepper, coffee, cinnamon; 
cotton raising is increasing; cattle-breeding is a large industry; 
salt is worked. Imports, salt, wines, textiles; exports, salt fish, 
tobacco, cotton, rice. 

Tonking occupies the northern end of the possessions; area, 
46,400 square miles; population (1911), 6,119,720; chief town, 
Hanoi (1915), 150,000, the capital of Indo-China; port, Haiphong. 
Chief crop, rice; maize, sugar-cane, cotton, coffee, tobacco, fruits 
are raised. Zinc is mined. Imports, metals, tools and machinery, 
beverages, cloths; exports, rice, maize, cattle products. Exports 
(1916), $14,216,400; imports, $9,218,972. 

Laos is a southern extension of Tonking; area, 98,000 
square miles; population (1914), 640,877; capital, Vien-tiane. 
Soil of superior quality, producing rice, cotton, indigo, fruits, 
tobacco; teak-wood is an extensive product. Mineral resources 
large. 

Kwang-Chau-Wan is on the adjacent south coast of China. 
Latitude 19° north, longitude 110° east; area, 190 square miles; 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 199 

population, 168,000. Leased from China, and includes two islands 
in the adjoining bay. Imports, cotton yarns, opium, petroleum; 
exports, straw sacks, mats, swine. 

French Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

French Possessions. — The colonial policy of France began in 
1626, when part of Guiana was taken, and has persisted through- 
out the intervening period to the present day. In all, about 
4,000,000 square miles of dependent territory, with a population 
of 44,000,000, are now under French control or ownership. Tabu- 
lated by continents, the holdings are as follows : — in America, 
four colonies contain 33,200 square miles and 459,082 people; in 
Africa, fourteen regions contain 3,151,024 square miles, with a 
population of 32,898,518; in Asia, six colonies contain 256,196 
square miles and 17,268,728 people; in Australasia (Oceania) two 
major islands and a number of minor groups embrace 9,150 square 
miles and 81,200 people. The volume of trade may be judged 
from these figures, which exclude Algeria and Tunis. Exports 
from the colonies (1915), $152,309,645; imports, $104,168,750. 
The following are described under their own names : Algeria, 
Morocco, Madagascar (including the Mayotte and Comorro 
Islands). 

Africa. — French Sahara includes all the territory west of the 
Nile basin, practically the whole of the Sahara desert except the 
subordinate Libyan desert, estimated at 1,544,000 square miles, 
with a population of only 800,000. Much of it contains only oases 
and connecting caravan routes. Fruits, oil and seeds are collected 
and exported. The state of Wadai lies at the southeastern corner 
of this area, in the Sudan. 

French West Africa includes Senegal, French Guinea, Ivory 
Coast, Dahomey, Upper Senegal-Niger (French Sudan), Mauri- 
tania. 

Senegal occupies the west coast from 21° 15' to about 13° 30' 
north latitude, merging into Mauritania on the northeast and 
French Guinea on the southeast ; area, 74,000 square miles ; popula- 
tion (1915), 1,247,979; capital and port, St. Louis, 22,839 (1916); 
Dakar is a naval station and seat of government for West Africa 
(19,808). Soil, sandy; ground-nuts, millet, maize, rice and castor 
beans are cultivated, and gum and rubber gathered. Ground-nuts 
are exported, as also hides, skins and rubber. Imports are 



200 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

cottons, foodstuffs, metal utensils and coal. Exports (1916), 
$16,458,075; imports, $23,354,165. 

French Guinea lies on the west coast, south of Portuguese 
Guinea; area, about 95,000 square miles; population (1916), 
1,808,893. Chief product, rubber; others are palm oil and nuts, 
millet, gum, coffee, fruits. Cattle are raised on a large scale. Gold 
is known to occur. Exports, rubber, cattle, ground-nuts, palm 
kernels. Exports (1916), $3,560,230; imports, $4,041,860. 

Ivory Coast occupies the north coast of the Gulf of Guinea, 
between Liberia and Gold Coast, and stretches north to the French 
Sudan; area, about 130,000 -square miles; population (1916), 
1,530,754; seat of government, Bingerville (formerly Adjame) ; 
at Grand Bassan is a good harbor. Maize, plantains, bananas, 
pine-apples and coffee are cultivated, and cocoanuts gathered. 
Mahogany occurs inland, and gold. Imports, chiefly cotton goods, 
tobacco, rice; exports, palm kernels, oil and rubber. Exports 
(1916), $1,888,410; imports, $2,109,330. 

Dahomey stretches inland from the north coast of the Gulf of 
Guinea, between Togoland and Nigeria, with only 70 miles of 
coast; area, 39,000 square miles; population (1916), 911,749; seat 
of government and chief trade center, Porto Novo (20,000). Agri- 
culture is largely developed, maize, manioc, yams and potatoes 
being raised near the coast; cotton is cultivated somewhat. Im- 
ports, chiefly cottons, machinery, liquor, tobacco; exports, maize, 
palm kernels and oil, copra, kola nuts and rubber. Exports (1916), 
$3,756,210; imports, $3,476,150. 

Upper Senegal-Niger was consolidated in 1904 from Sene- 
gambia and Niger. On the north it merges into Sahara, on the 
south into the colonies on the Guinea coast; on the west into 
Mauritania, on the east with the Chad region of Sahara. Its divi- 
sions include the civil and military Niger Territories ; area, 802,000 
square miles; population (1916), 6,449,067. Industry primitive, 
but includes pottery, brick making, weaving and leather. Cattle are 
raised on a large scale. Rubber is collected; ground-nuts, millet, 
maize, rice and cotton are cultivated. Imports, chiefly cottons, 
metal utensils, foodstuffs; exports, cattle, skins, wool, rubber and 
ground-nuts. Exports (1916), $622,075; imports, $1,301,250. 

Mauritania lies northeast of Senegal and east of the Spanish 
territory of Rio de Oro and Adrar, merging eastward with 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 201 

Sahara; area, about 345,000 square miles; population, about 
600,000, mostly Moors. 

French Congo (French Equatorial Africa) lies on the west 
coast, below the Gulf of Guinea, extending northward from 4° 
south latitude. It is cut into segments by two intrusions of 
Kamerun, broadens rapidly northward and merges into the state 
of Wadai. Its main body is between 2° north and 4° south, and 
between 8° 30' and 17° east; area, about 669,000 square miles; 
population, estimated at 9,000,000; capital, Brazzaville; chief 
ports, Port Gentil and Libreville. Rubber, palm oil and the 
produce from caravans are the exports. Exports (1916), $732,657; 
imports, $926,070. 

French Somali Coast, on the Gulf of Aden, East Africa. Lati- 
tude 12° 30-10° 40' north, longitude 41 ° 40'-42 ° 40' east; area, 
about 5,790 square miles; population (1910), 208,000; chief port 
and seat of government, Dibouti. Coast fisheries and inland 
trade are the chief occupations; salt is mined. Most trade is 
transit. Imports, mainly cotton goods, galvanized iron, sugar and 
butter; exports, coffee, ivory, skins and hides. Exports (1916), 
$10,325,031; imports, $7,847,771. 

Reunion (Bourbon) Island lies 420 miles east of Madagascar. 
Latitude 21° south, longitude 55° 30' east; area, 970 square miles; 
population (1912), 173,822; chief towns, St. Denis, 23,972 (1912), 
St. Pierre, 29,481. Has been a French colony since 1767. Chief 
products, sugar, rum, coffee, vanilla and spices, tapioca; imports, 
rice, grain. Exports (1916), $6,632,900; imports, $4,679,413. 

St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands, latitude 38° south, longitude 
78° east, are uninhabited rocks. 

Kerguelen Island, latitude 50° south, longitude 70° east, is a 
desolate spot, used chiefly as a supply station, especially for 
antarctic exploration, and as an astronomical station. 

America. — St. Pierre and Miquelon are the largest islands of 
two groups near the south coast of Newfoundland. Latitude 
47° north, longitude 56° 20' west; area, St. Pierre group, 10 square 
miles, Miquelon group, 83 square miles; population (1911), St. 
Pierre group, 4,209, Miquelon group, 443. The islands are rocky, 
and the chief industry cod fishing. Imports, textiles, salt, wine, 
meat, foodstuffs; exports, cod, fresh and dried, and other fish 
products. Exports (1915), $1,783,780; imports, $514,765. 



202 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Guadeloupe and its dependencies consist of two closely adja- 
cent islands and five smaller islands. Latitude 16 ° 30-15 ° 50' 
north, longitude 61° 50-61° west; area, main islands, 772 square 
miles, dependencies, 688 square miles. The two main islands are 
Guadeloupe or Basse-Terre (west), and Grand-Terre to the east. 
The lesser islands are Marie Galante, Les Saintes, Desirade, St. 
Barthelemy, and St. Martin. Seat of government, Basse-Terre 
(8,656) ; Pointe-a-Pitre (22,604) has a good harbor. Products, 
sugar, coffee, cacao ; many fruits, vegetables and grains are grown 
for local consumption; parts of the islands forest-clad. Exports 
(1916), $8,145,680; imports, $4,816,355. 

French Guiana is on the northern coast of South America. 
Latitude 5° 40-2° north, longitude 55°-51°30' west; area, about 
32,000 square miles; population (1911), 49,000; capital and only 
seaport, Cayenne (13,527). Population figures are exclusive of 
a penal settlement of about 8,300. The 200 miles of coast are high, 
and harbors almost lacking. Agriculture slight in amount; rice, 
maize, manioc, cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco and indigo are grown, 
and rubber collected. Gold mining occupies many of the people. 
Exports are cocoa, woods, hides, gold, phosphates. Value of ex- 
ports (1915), $2,274,380; imports, $2,085,800. 

Martinique, latitude 14° 52'-14° 27' north, longitude 61° 12'- 
59° 50 west; area, 385 square miles; population (1916), 193,087; 
chief trade center, Port de France (26,400). Chief products, 
sugar and cocoa ; lesser crops are tobacco, coffee, cotton. Exports 
(1916), $12,197,965; imports, $6,770,880. 

Asia. — French India consists of five minute colonies, scattered 
unsystematically through the peninsula : — Pondichery, latitude 12 ° 
north, longitude 80° east, on the east coast south of Madras, popu- 
lation (1916), 168,344; Karikal, latitude 11° north, longitude 80° 
east, on the coast south of the former, 56,562; Yanaon, latitude 
16° 45' north, longitude 82° 30' east, northeast of Madras on the 
coast; Mahe, latitude 11° 30' north, longitude 75° 30' east, on the 
southwest coast; and Chandernagor, latitude 22° 40' north, longi- 
tude 88° 20' east, a few miles northwest of Calcutta. Ground-nuts, 
paddy and ragi are grown, and rubber, cotton and jute worked 
up. Exports (1914, the highest year), $6,860,700; imports, 
$1,909,130. 

AvrStralasia.—'New Caledonia, an island of the South Pacific, 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 203 

Latitude 20°-22°25' south, longitude 161° 30-164° 40' east; area, 
7,600 square miles; population (1911), 50,608. The island is 
largely mountainous ; there is some pasture and some arable land. 
Chief products, coffee, copra, cotton, manioc, maize, tobacco, 
bananas, pine-apples; cattle raising extensive; mill industries 
somewhat developed. Nickel, ore and metal are an important 
product. Imports, coal, flour, rice, wine; exports, minerals, coffee, 
copra, rubber, guano. Exports (1916), $4,026,035; imports, 
$3,445,520. 

Dependencies of the island are five groups : — Isle of Pines, 30 
miles southeast, 58 square miles, population 600; Wallis Archi- 
pelago, northeast of Fiji, 40 square miles, population, 4,500; 
Loyalty Islands, 60 miles east of New Caledonia, 800 square miles, 
on which cocoanuts and rubber are raised; Huon Islands, 170 
miles northwest of New Caledonia, barren ; Futuna and Alfi, south 
of Wallis Archipelago, with 1,500 population. 

The New Hebrides Islands are a chain of volcanic peaks. 
Latitude 13°-20° south, longitude 166°-169° east; area, 5,100 
square miles; population, estimated, 70,000. The islands were dis- 
covered in 1606 and visited by Cook in 1774. By a treaty ratified 
in 1906 the islands were placed under the joint control of Great 
Britain and France. Maize, copra, coffee, bananas, and Kauri 
wood are exported. Sulphur is abundant. 

The Society Islands form an archipelago of the South Pacific. 
Latitude 16°-18° south, longitude 152°-148° west; area, 637 square 
miles; population, estimated, 20,000. The islands have been 
claimed by the French since 1768. Tahiti, the largest and most 
important island, contains more than half the population of the 
group; area, 600 square miles; population, 11,700. Papeete, its 
capital, is a port of call for many vessels in Pacific trade. The 
natives are among the finest of the Polynesian Malays, but they 
have suffered much from the vices of Europeans. The chief 
exports are copra, sugar and rum, which are cleared mainly 
through the ports of Fiji. Pearls and mother of pearl are impor- 
tant products. Imports are cloths, wheat, flour, metal utensils. 
Exports of Tahiti (1913), 1,703,590; imports, $1,685,390. 

The Paumotu (Paumota, Taumotu or Low) Archipelago is a 
broad chain of coral stolls in the South Pacific. Latitude 14°-23° 
south, longitude 150°-131° west; area, about 330 square miles; 



204 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

population, estimated, 6,000, mainly Malays of the Polynesian 
type. The number of islands is 78. They became a protectorate 
of France in 1844, and were formally annexed to the dependency 
of Tahiti in 1881. Pearls and pearl shell are the only products, 
and these are marketed at Tahiti. 

The Marquesas Islands are a volcanic group in mid-Pacific. 
Latitude 8°-ll° south, longitude 141°-138° west; area, 480 square 
miles; population, estimated, 3,500. The islands, discovered in 
1595, became a French possession about 1842. The administration 
includes various other islands in the vicinity. They are of 
strategic value only. 

The Leeward Islands lie immediately northwest of the Society 
Islands, and by some are regarded as a part of that group. The 
Gambler, Tubuai and Rapa Islands are three small groups near 
the Tropic of Capricorn, ranging as a whole from 22° to 28° south, 
and 155° to 135° west. They are of coral origin, and contain 
altogether a few thousand inhabitants. 

French Somali Coast: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

French West Africa: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Friendly Islands: — see Tonga Islands, p. 274. 

Funafuti Island: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 

Futuna Island: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. 

Galapagos Islands. — A group of five large and ten small islands 
crossed by the equator about 600 miles west of Ecuador, to which 
state they belong; area, estimated, 2,800 square miles; population, 
estimated, 800, but likely to increase materially from the fact that 
the islands are in the route between the Panama Canal and Aus- 
tralia. The only commercial products are guano and orchilla 
moss, from which a purple dye is extracted. These are exported 
to Europe. A powerful radio-station has been erected on the 
islands. The giant turtles for which the islands were noted are 
now few in number. 

Gambia and Protectorate: — see British West Africa, p. 173. 

Gamhier Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. 

Gardner Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Georgia. — An old kingdom of northwestern Trans-Caucasia, 
which led a separate existence for more than 2,000 years until 
1801, when it was incorporated into Russia. It proclaimed its 
independence of Russia as a republic in January, 1918; and is 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 205 

expected to be recognized by the Peace Conference, either as a 
state or as a mandatory of one of the Allied and Associated 
Powers. The geographical area known as Georgia includes the 
Russian governments of Tiflis and Kutais, in western Trans- 
Caucasia. These have a combined area of 24,000 square miles, and 
a population of about 2,500,000, of which 1,350,000 are Georgians. 
But in addition, the Georgians occupy adjacent parts of Armenia 
for some distance west of the Russian boundary. For descrip- 
tion of the general nature of the country, see under Armenia and 
Caucasia. The Georgians comprise the finest of the three great 
divisions of the Caucasian race. Their country, with some of the 
best of the Black Sea coast, with several large and fertile val- 
leys, and with its full share of mineral wealth, bids fair to become 
one of the strongest of the new states of the southeast, arising 
out of the war. 

German East Africa: — see Great Britain, Mandatories of; and 
Belgium, Mandatory of, pp. 210 and 156. 

German New Guinea: — see Australia, Mandatories of, p. 153. 

German Possessions (Former). — Previous to the World War, 
Germany, as part of her imperialistic colonial policy, had acquired 
in various ways dependent territory aggregating, according to esti- 
mate, 1,027,820 square miles, and holding a population of consider- 
ably over 12,000,000. This policy of expansion began to bear fruit 
in 1884, when the first of the territory was taken; and the increase 
of colonial lands continued until 1909. Of these colonies and pro- 
tectorates, Africa furnished four — Togoland, Kamerun, Southwest 
Africa and East Africa, with an area of 931,460 square miles and 
a population of about 11,500,000. In 1911, 107,270 square miles 
was added to Kamerun, with a population of 1,000,000; and 6,450 
square miles ceded to France. In Asia one area, Kiauchau, was 
taken, with 200 square miles of land and an equal area of inclosed 
water; and a population of 168,900. In the Pacific, German New 
Guinea consisted of Kaiser Wilhelm's Land and six archipelagos, 
totalling- 96,100 square miles, with a population of about 636,000. 
In addition, German Samoa occupied 1,000 square miles with a 
population of 35,000. 

These colonies were cleverly situated, for purposes of strategy 
or of trade. In some cases a colony was warped into fantastic 
shape in order to tap desirable country — as southwest Africa with 



206 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

its long finger reaching four degrees eastward to tap the Zambezi 
River, or Kamerun, with two prongs reaching far to the east and 
south to the Congo. The treatment accorded the natives has not 
been such as to develop properly the latent strength of the 
colonies ; and, under the direction of the League of Nations, almost 
limitless economic possibilities lie open for usefulness under the 
various mandataries. 

German Samoa: — see New Zealand, Mandatory of, p. 245. 

German Southwest Africa: — see Union of South Africa, Man- 
datory of, p. 278. 

Germany. — A limited monarchy until 1918, now a republic. 
Latitude 55° 30' (54° 40' with Slesvig eliminated)-47° 15' north, 
longitude 6°-22°50' east, including the detached area in East 
Prussia. Area, in 1914, 208,780 square miles; the Treaty of Ver- 
sailles, 1919, takes from Germany outright 29,219 square miles, 
and leaves the sovereignty of 8,532 square miles to be determined 
by popular vote. Population (1914), 67,812,000; the same treaty 
transfers to other nationality, outright or subject to popular 
vote, 11,362,000; capital, Weimar; other cities — Berhn, 2,071,257 
(1910); Hamburg, 831,535; Munich, 596,467; Bremen, 247,437; 
Nuremberg, 333,142; Breslau, 512,105; Cologne, 516,527; Frank- 
fort-on-Main, 414,576; Hanover, 302,978; Dresden, 548,308; Leip- 
zig, 589,850. The northern half of the republic is a low plain, 
marshy along the Baltic, and rising gently to the highlands of 
the southern half; back of the highlands are the Alps, on the south- 
ern edge of Germany. The Baltic and North Sea coasts extend for 
more than 1,000 miles; they th^y are sandy and low, and offer poor 
harborage ; the Baltic coast, moreover, is far from open sea, neces- 
sitating the construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm or Kiel Canal 
across the neck of the Danish peninsula. The harbors are estu- 
aries or are far up the rivers. Hamburg is one of the great- 
est ports in the world, and handles half of Germany's foreign 
trade. Bremen, on the Weser, is the second port; and Stettin and 
Danzig have been the chief North Sea ports. The last-named, with 
surrounding land on the delta of the Vistula (729 square miles), 
is now, by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, an international- 
ized port surrounded by Polish territory. The rivers have great 
importance in transportation; immense sums have been spent on 
their improvement, and many canals connect them. The Elbe is 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 207 

navigable clear across Germany. Continental climate prevails 
in the east and oceanic climate in the west, so that the average 
temperature of eastern Germany is lower than that of western 
Germany. About one-fourth of the country .is covered with for- 
ests, which are carefully conserved, and a tree must be planted 
for every one cut down. The growth of manufactures has reduced 
the agricultural population so that less than half the people are 
now farmers. 

Germany does not raise sufficient food for her dense popula- 
tion, in spite of intensive cultivation. The leading crop, in 
acreage, is rye, followed by hay, oats, potatoes, wheat, barley and 
beets. The country leads the world in the production of beet 
sugar, but much of the wheat consumed is imported; the potato 
crop is large. Potatoes are grown chiefly in the sandy northern 
plain. The hops and beer of Bavaria are famous. The chief 
dairy industry is in the north, where cattle are easily fattened and 
the grasses conduce to the richest quality of milk. North Ger- 
many is also most propitious for horse raising. The goat is the 
poor man's cow, and many thousands are raised in the southern 
highlands. Sheep have greatly decreased, and immense quantities 
of wool are imported for the factories. Fishing occupies a large 
number of men. 

Germany, previous to the war, was surpassed only by the 
United States and Great Britain as an industrial nation. The 
closest attention was given to perfecting technical processes. The 
most important industries have been iron and steel, and their 
manufactures, which are promoted by the great coal-fields of the 
Ruhr River and Saxony. Textiles are the second largest industry, 
many towns in Rliinoland-AVestphalia and in the Chemnitz dis- 
trict of Saxony being spinning and weaving centers. Germany 
has contained by far the largest fields of coal and lignite (brown 
coal) worked in continental Europe. The loss of the Sarre field, 
and of some in Upper Silesia, cripples the country somewhat, but 
leaves it still strong in this regard. On the other hand, Germany's 
great steel, ship and munition industries have been based upon 
an abundance of iron ore as well ; the World War could not have 
continued for a year, but for the Lorraine and Luxemburg ores. 
Luxemburg trade will turn to France and Belgium; Lorraine is 
lost, and Germany's industrial future will be profoundly affected 



208 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

by the changed conditions. Potash is one of the resources of the 
country and a considerable quantity is exported for fertilizer. 
Until 1914, the German controlling syndicate held a practical 
monopoly of the world market. The nation's success in dye-making 
and selling has been very great. Transportation is abundant and 
comparatively cheap; the splendid development of waterways 
supplements the numerous railroads. The imports are enormous 
quantities of food and raw materials, and the exports are manu- 
factured articles. Race, Germanic, and over 500,000 foreigners, 
chiefly from other European states. Religion, mainly Lutheran, 
Roman Catholic and Hebrew. Figures for exports and imports 
prior to the war are of no value for forecasting future 
conditions. 

Gibraltar: — see British Possessions; Europe, p. 172. 
Gilbert and Ellice Islands: — see British Possessions; Aus- 
tralasia, p. 169. 

Gilbert Islands: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 
Goa: — see Portuguese India, p. 258. 
Gold Coast: — see British West Africa, p. 173. 
Graham's Land: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 
Great Britain and Ireland. — Officially, the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland. Latitude 60°-49° north, longitude 11° 
west-2° east; area, 121,633 square miles; population (1914), esti- 
mated, 46,760,000; capital, London (greater city), 7,419,704; prin- 
cipal cities of England — Liverpool, 763,926; Manchester, 731,830; 
Birmingham, 860,591; Sheffield, 472,234; Leeds, 457,507; Bristol, 
361,573; Bradford, 290,642; Kingston-upon-Hull, 287,472; New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, 271,523; Nottingham, 264,970; of Scotland, 
capital, Edinburgh, 326,901; Glasgow, 1,072,793; Dundee, 178,752; 
Aberdeen, 164,307; of Ireland, capital, Dublin, 400,000; Belfast, 
399,000. Total population of England (1914), estimated, 23,382,- 
000; Scotland (1915), 4,785,598; Wales, 1,712,770; Ireland, 
4,324,365. 

The United Kingdom dates from the Union of the crowns of 
England and Scotland under James I., in 1603. From 1649 to 
1660 the government was practically a republic, styled " The Com- 
monwealth." Since that time the reigning families have been the 
Houses of Stuart, Stuart-Orange, Stuart, Hanover, and Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha. In 1917 a Royal Proclamation changed the name 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 209 

of the House of King George V to that of Windsor. The British 
Empire consists of the United Kingdom and the various British 
possessions. These have an aggregate area of about 12,785,000 
square miles, or about one-fourth the land surface of the earth. 
The estimated population of the empire is 442,000,000. Great 
Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales, with the Isle 
of Man and Channel Islands. 

An extensive, undulating and fertile plain covers the south and 
east of Great Britain. Mountains in the north and west cover 
two-fifths of the total surface. The mountains of north Scotland 
are mostly devoid of cultivation. Much of Ireland is an undulat- 
ing interior plain, with mountain ranges near the sea surrounding 
it. Most of the plain is very fertile, but one-seventh of Ireland 
is covered by bog and moor. England has fifty rivers navigable 
by large or small vessels. The Thames is commercially the most 
important river in the world, although only 220 miles long. The 
Clyde excepted, the rivers of Scotland are not of great commercia' 
importance. Ireland has many navigable streams, among which 
the Shannon is navigable for almost its entire length. In Eng- 
land there are over 2,500 miles of canals. A ship canal connects 
Manchester with the sea. The climate is oceanic, and mild for so 
high a latitude. The abundant rainfall is most copious in the 
west. Severe storms in autumn and winter sometimes do great 
damage on the coasts. 

Not much more than one-fifth of the soil is cultivated, and the 
islands produce not more than one-fourth enough food to supply 
the people. The rest must be imported from the colonies and from 
the United States. Not much wheat is grown, and the warmth is 
not sufficient for maize. The oat crop is large, and the pasturage 
is excellent. No other nation has finer breeds of cattle, horses 
and sheep. Large quantities of dairy products are imported, but 
cheese of unusual fine quality is exported. 

The mineral riches exceed in value the agricultural products. 
The coal fields, about 4,000 mines, are among Great Britain's 
most valuable possessions, the yearly output being valued at more 
than $1,000,000,000. The most important metal is iron, the mines 
being situated near or among the coal fields. Next to the United 
States, Great Britain since 1918 has been the foremost producer 
of iron and steel. Salt is mined somewhat ; the tin mines have pro- 



210 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP THE WORLD 

duced as many as 15,000 tons of ore in a year, present yield being 
half that number. 

The textile industries are first- in the list of manufactures, the 
greatest centers of the cotton industry being around Manchester, 
Derby, Nottingham, Glasgow, Paisley and Belfast. About 790,- 
000,000 pounds of wool are absorbed in normal times annually by 
the woolen industries, and 1,600,000,000 pounds of cotton are 
turned into manufactures. The silk industry does not meet French 
competition nor supply the home demand. The metal industries 
form the second great department of manufactures. Besides 
steel rails, armor plate and steel for bridges, railroads, ships, etc., 
machinery is made in thousands of machine shops; hardware and 
glass, chemicals, leather, and, in fact, all branches of manufac- 
turing are of the highest development. 

Great Britain is one of the two leading commercial nations, and 
its trade is world-wide in the fullest sense. The railroads are 
solidly constructed, usually with double tracks, and the speed of 
the trains is the highest in Europe. The country's activities are 
wonderfully stimulated by enormous capital, invested not only at 
home but also all over the world. Great Britain's chief buying 
markets are United States, Australia, British India, Egypt, Italy, 
Argentine, and Canada. These furnish foodstulTs and raw ma- 
terials to be manufactured into the w^ares for which the country 
is famous. They are also her principal selling markets. The 
United States furnishes most of tlie cotton and a considerable 
amount of wheat and meat. 

The English people are mainly of Anglo-Saxon descent. The 
Scotch, Welsh, and Irish are of Keltic descent, wholly or in part. 
Religions — Established Church, Scottish Church, Protestant Dis- 
senter, Roman Catholic, Hebrew. Foreign trade (1916-17) — ex- 
ports, $2,974,306,160; imports, $5,326,280,000. 

Great Britain, Mandatories of. — Although a considerable part 
of the ex-German colonies has been placed within the British 
Empire as mandatory, Great Britain itself has received only one 
of large size, and a minute island whose importance is strategic. 

German East Africa: Latitude 1°-11°45' south, longitude 
29° 30-40° 30' east; area, 384,000 square miles; coast line, 620 
miles; population (1913), 7,680,112, of which 5,336 were white; 
former capital, Daressalam. The harborage facilities are poor, the 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 211 

water being shallow, but eight coast towns are used as ports; the 
chief of these is the capital. German improvements in this colony- 
were many, and resistance to its complete subjugation by the 
Allies lasted throughout the war. The topography is such that a 
wide range of vegetable products occurs, and culture, under Ger- 
man stimulus, has proceeded far. Several agricultural experiment 
stations are in operation. Cattle-raicing flourishes. A number of 
mineral deposits are known, but prospecting has not been thor- 
ough. The Germans had very detailed and accurate maps of the 
protectorate, which doubtless will be available for their successors. 
Chief imports are cotton, rice, foodstuffs, hardware; exports, 
rubber, ivory, copra, coffee, sisal, wax. Trade has been chiefly 
with Germany and Zanzibar. Exports (1913), $8,887,760; imports, 
$13,339,625. 

Belgium has become the mandatory for a small area at the 
northwest corner, which does not, however, lessen materially the 
size or importance of this addition to the Cape to Cairo railway 
route. 

To Great Britain have been allotted two small areas in western 
Africa. One is a narrow strip along the northwest side of the 
Cameroons, adjacent to Nigeria; the other is a similar strip on 
the west side of Togoland, adjacent to Gold Coast and Ashanti. 
The remainder of these two ex-German colonies are mandatories 
under France, and are thus described. 

Nauru, or Pleasant Island. Latitude 0°45' south, longitude 
166° 50' east; south of the Marshall Islands, and by some regarded 
as a part of that group ; west of the Gilbert Islands, and nearer to 
them. Formerly a guano center; now valuable chiefly on account of 
a powerful radio station erected by the Germans. 

Great Elohey Island: — see Spanish Guiana, p. 269. 

Greece.— A limited monarchy. Latitude (1914) 39 ° 50-35 ° 50' 
north, longitude 19 ° 20'-26 ° 10' east; area (1914), 41,933 square 
miles; population (1914), estimated, 4,821,300; capital, Athens 
(1907), 167,479; other cities— Saloniki (1915), 157,889; Pin^us, 
port of Athens (1907), 73,579. The kingdom includes many 
islands of the ^Egean and Ionian seas. Greece has two main divi- 
sions, northern Greece and the Morea, connected only by the nar- 
row isthmus of Corinth. Both parts are occupied largely by 
mountains and hills, the only considerable plain being that of 



212 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Thessaly, in the north. The mountains are barren, the islands 
and plains are fertile. The rivers are short coast streams, and 
Greece is not richly supplied with water. The irregularity of 
the coast line aifords good harbors. The coasts and islands have 
a mild climate, but the inland regions suffer from extremes of 
heat and cold. About one-fifth of the area is cultivable. Agri- 
culture is backward, and does not produce sufficient foodstuffs 
for home consumption. The best farming region is the highly 
fertile plain of Thessaly, from which considerable wheat is 
derived. Barley, maize, and rice are important crops. Tobacco is 
extensively grown, and a large part of the Egyptian cigarettes are 
made from the tobacco of Greece, Stock raising is insignificant, 
sheep and goats take the place of cows, and much cheese is made 
from sheep's milk. Rapid deforestation is injuring the country. 
Lead, iron and magnesite are mined. The household industries 
are most important, but cotton and woolen cloths are produced in 
a number of towns. Zante and the neighboring region grow 
the small grapes commercially known as Zante currants. Com- 
munication is poor and insufficient. Races : — the Greeks are de- 
scended from the ancient Greeks, with Illyrian and other admix- 
tures; Albanians, Wallachians, Armenians, Turks, etc. Religion, 
mainly Greek Orthodox. The chief imports are agricultural prod- 
ucts, crude minerals, yarns, chemicals, papers and books, forest 
products; the exports are agricultural products, raw minerals, 
wines, animal products, olive and other oils. Exports (1916), 
$20,433,280; imports, $45,705,000. 

Should Thrace and the Adrianople region be given to Greece 
by the Peace Conference, it will extend the country to 39° 50'- 
35° 50' north latitude and 19°20'-28° east longitude. It will add 
an area of approximately 9,300 s(iuare miles to the country, 
wall give control of the gateway to Constantinople, and will 
give an outlook on the Black Sea as well as extending greatly 
the ^gean coastal length. The added territory is exceed- 
ingly valuable, but the population is so mixed as to be difficult 
to govern. It is probable that a small portion of southern Albania, 
inhabited by Greeks, may be transferred to Greek ownership. In 
addition, Greece secures a considerable area (possibly as much as 
25,800 square miles) in western Asia Minor, of which Smyrna is 
a center, and which is inhabited largely by Greeks. This is not a 
mandatory, but is to become an integral part of Greece itself. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 213 

Grand-Terre Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 

Greenland (see also Danish Possessions). — The largest island 
of the world. Latitude 83°-60° north, longitude 78°-10° west; 
area (estimated), 512,000 s(iuare miles; population (1911), 13,500; 
largest settlement, Sydproven (1911), 766. There were Norse 
settlements in the tenth century. The settlement at East Bygd, 
near Juleanshaab, contained a cathedral and several churches. 
The ruins of an old church at Kakortok, built in the twelfth cen- 
tury, are still standing. The settlement disappeared early in the 
sixteenth century. The trade of Greeland has been a Danish crown 
monopoly since 1774. The inhabited parts of the west and east 
coast are occupied by Denmark as far as 74° north latitude on the 
west and 67° north latitude on the east coast. The population, 
Danes and Eskimos, live mainly on the Danish west coast; a few 
hundred on the east coast, and a few hundred also in northwest 
Greenland between Cape York and Etah. The interior is covered 
by an ice-cap reaching an altitude of 12,000 feet; the coasts are 
mountainous, w^ith deep fiords, and many glacial tongues move 
down them from the inland ice. The ends of the glaciers at the 
sea edge break off as icebergs, which float southward to the tracks 
of trans-Atlantic steamers. The coast vegetation is scanty, chiefly 
mosses and lichens, with here and there patches of grass. The 
few stunted trees in south Greenland rarely grow higher than a 
man's head. The chief animals are the musk-ox, reindeer, arctic 
fox and polar bear. The coast waters are frequented by seals, 
walruses, fish, whales and countless numbers of eider ducks and 
other birds. The natives struggle hard to gain a livelihood. Seal 
blubber is transformed into train oil, and seal, polar bear and white 
fox skins, eider down and a little whalebone are collected. Coal is 
found, but the only mineral of importance yet worked is cryolite, 
the mines at Ivigtut being the only known deposits of commercial 
importance. This mineral was formerly much used in tlie manu- 
facture of the metal aluminium. Danish trading stations supply 
the Eskimos with commodities in exchange for the collection of 
skins and blubber products. 

Grenada: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Grenadines Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Guadeloupe: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. 

Guam: — see United States, Outlying Territories, p. 285. 



214 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Guatemala. — A ropublic of Central America. Latitude 17° 45'- 
13° 45' north, longitude 92° 15-88° 15' west; area, estimated, 
48,300 square miles; population (1914), estimated, 2,000,000; capi- 
tal, Guatemala (1910), estimated, 90,000 (an earthquake in 1917 
completely destroyed the city); other cities, Coban, 31,000; 
Quezaltenango, 29,000. A Spanish possession from 1522 to 1821; 
a Mexican possession from 1821 to 1847, when it became a republic. 
Guatemala has larger business relations with the rest of the 
world than any other Central American republic. Most of the 
country is an elevated plateau, with a broad frontage on the 
Pacific and a very short Atlantic coast line. Maize and black 
beans, the chief food staples in Central America, are grown every- 
where. Coffee, the great export crop, thrives from the Pacific to 
the center of the republic. Sugar made from sugar-cane is con- 
sumed at home, but little is exported. Cotton-fields and sheep pas- 
tures on the higher lands supply fiber for spinners and weavers, 
and cattle scattered over the i^lateaus yield hides for export. Most 
of the commodities required by the people, except textiles and flour, 
are the products of home industry. There are more than 500 miles 
of railway. A section of the proposed Pan-American railway 
skirts the Pacific coast. A transcontinental railway passing- 
through Guatemala connects the Pacific port, San Jose, and the 
Atlantic port, Puerto Barrios, Coffee, bananas, sugar, hides and 
cabinet woods are the chief exports ; imports are cotton, foodstuffs, 
linen, hemp and jute. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. 
Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $10,637,855; imports, 
$6,725,600. 

Guiana. — The native name of a region in the northern part of 
South America. Latitude 8°30'-l°30' north; longitude 61° 30'- 
51° 30' west. Physiographically the area extends into Brazil. 
Guiana was sighted in 1498 by Columbus, when he discovered 
Trinidad. Guiana is composed of three colonies — British, Dutch 
(Surinam), and French. The first two are characterized by a low, 
hot, fertile coastal plain, occupied by most of the population. The 
third has highland at or near the coast. All the countries are com- 
paratively undeveloped. For detailed description, see the various 
subdivisions. 

Hadramaut: — see Nejed, p. 239. 

Haiti. — A Negro republic occupying the western part of the 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 215 

island of Haiti, one of the largest of the West Indies. Latitude 
20° 15-17° 30' north, longitude 74° 30-71° 30' west; area, esti- 
mated, 10,204 square miles; population (1912), estimated, 2,500,000; 
capital. Port au Prince, esitmated, 100,000; other cities — Cape 
Haiti, 30,000; Gonaives, 13,000. A French colony founded about 
1697, and proclaimed a republic 1804. The surface is mountain- 
ous; the highways are poor. Most of the traffic is carried by sea 
routes. A railway from Port au Prince to Cape Haiti is under con- 
struction. Other short lines are in operation. The climate is 
tropical, but is tempered by sea winds. Coffee is the chief product 
and export, and is superior in quality; but little attention is paid 
to its cultivation, as a heavy export duty hinders the producers. 
The coarse cotton textiles, breadstuffs and kerosene, which form 
most of the imports, are largely supplied by the United States. 
Coffee, cotton, cocoa, and logwood are the chief exports. Race, 
French-speaking Negroes. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports 
(1915-16), $1,837,744; imports, $1,925,255. 

Hasa, El: — see Nejed, p. 239. 

Hawaii. — Or the Hawaiian Islands. A chain of volcanic islands 
in the Pacific Ocean, mainly between latitude 23°-18° north, longi- 
tude 161°-154° west; area, 6,449 square miles, Hawaii 4,015, 
Lunai 139, Niihau 97, Maui 728, Oahu 598, Kauai 547, Molokai 261; 
population (1917), estimated, 250,627; capital, Honolulu, Island of 
Oahu (1917), estimated, 71,950. The first mention of the islands 
in modern history occurs in 1528, when two vessels of Alvaro de 
Saavedra were shipwrecked there. Juan Gaetan visited them 
in the middle of the sixteenth century, and in 1778 Captain Cook 
visited them and named them after the Earl of Sandwich. In 
1893 the reigning queen was deposed and a provisional government 
formed; in 1894 a republic was proclaimed; in 1898 they were 
annexed to the United States, and in 1900 they were organized as 
a territory. There are eleven islands, eight of which are inhabited. 
The islands are separated from one another by ocean channels 
varying in width from 6 to 61 miles. Small as they are, they 
embrace about as much territory as all the rest of Polynesia. 
Oahu, the most populous and important commercially, is as large 
as the Society group. Maui has about the same area as the 
Marquesas group; and the island of Hawaii, with the remaining 
islands, is nearly as large as all the other groups of Polynesia. 



216 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Hawaii is at the cross-roads of the Pacific, where vessels in the 
American-Japanese and American-Australian trade put into port. 
The group is also the starting-point for expeditions to Bering 
Strait and the South Sea. The geographical position of Hawaii 
in the central Pacific thus attracts much shipping. The group is 
purely volcanic, rising abruptly from deep water, and containing 
the loftiest summits of any oceanic islands. Mauna Loa and Mauna 
Kea, in Hawaii are over 14,000 feet. The volcanic forces are 
extinct in the west, but very active in the east. Below the moun- 
tains are fertile plains and valleys. All the soils are derived from 
lavas. Sedimentary soils, covering the levels bordering the sea, 
are very deep and rich. The dark red soils are immediately above 
the sedimentary flats and lowlands, and have high fertility. The 
light red soils on the uplands, near the mountains, are of small 
depth and less fertile. The climate is about ten degrees cooler than 
that of any other land in the same latitude. The windward side 
of the mountains has abundant rain, but there is much less on the 
leeward side, where most of the plantations are situated. The 
islands are wholly dependent upon agriculture. Cane-sugar 
employs most of the capital and labor, furnishes most of the 
exports, and maintains most of the people. Nearly all the planta- 
tions have their own mills and manufacture all the raw sugar 
produced from their cane. The sugar product reached a total 
of 640,800 tons in 1917 ; the yield of sugar per acre is from 6,000 
to over 9,000 pounds. Rice, growing on the lowest flats and close 
to the sea, has second place. The rice-growers are almost wholly 
Chinese. The coffee berry grows wild and is cultivated on the 
four larger islands, but the production as yet is comparatively 
small. Chinese gardeners supply Honolulu with nearly all its 
vegetables. Bananas and pineapples are the only fruits figuring 
in the exports. The forest areas are considerable, but have suf- 
fered great reduction; forty government forest reserves are now 
in existence. Sufficient cattle are maintained for beef and milk. 
Most of the plantation labor is supplied by Chinese, Japanese, 
and Portuguese. The native Hawaiians prefer to work for them- 
selves rather than to take service with employers, and the Portu- 
guese immigrants, energetic and thrifty people, are mostly en- 
gaged in horticulture. American capital finances the planting and 
commercial interests. About three-fourths of the imports come 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 217 

from the United States. Kaw sugar is the chief export. Hawaiian 
pineapples and pineapple products find their way to nearly every 
country in the world. Practically all the raw sugar has gone 
hitherto to the California refineries. Exports (1916-17), $75,115,- 
983; imports, $46,358,341. 

Hejaz. — A kingdom of Arabia, formerly, like other parts of 
Arabia, tributary to Turkey; won its freedom and recognition 
by the splendid work of the armies under the King of Hejaz, 
co-operating with the Allies in campaigns in western Asia. It is 
one of the four new countries permitted to be signatory to the 
German peace treaty of 1919. The province formerly extended 
from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to Asir, on the south, and 
back from the Red Sea for a distance of 100-200 miles. The 
dimensions and area of the new country are unknown, for it is 
likely to include Asir and Yemen on the south, and may attempt 
to extend its dominion over the nomadic Arabs of the great cen- 
tral desert. The area of the old divisions of Hejaz and Yemen 
is 170,000 square miles; population, 1,050,000. For description of 
the nature of the country, see Arabia. 

Hermit Isla?ids: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Hervey Islands: — see Cook Islands, p. 184. 

Honduras. — A republic of Central America. Latitude 16° 30'- 
13° north, longitude 89° 30-83° west; area, estimated, 44,275 
square miles; population (1914), estimated, 562,000; capital, 
Tegucigalpa, (28,950); Pacific port, Amapala, estimated, 4,000; 
Atlantic ports, Puerto Cortez (or Caballos), estimated, 2,500, and 
Trujillo, estimated, 4,000. Columbus landed on the American con- 
tinent first at Cape Honduras, 1502; first settlement by Cortez, 
1524; the region became an independent republic in 1821; a con- 
stitutional government was formed in 1894. Honduras is second 
in size of the Central American republics; but, although rich 
in resources, has little commercial development. The population 
cannot supply sufficient labor for so large an area, transportation 
facilities are very poor, and full half of the country is still in a 
virgin state. The interior plateau maintains many cattle; hides 
and live animals are important exports. The long Caribbean coast 
produces bananas and other fruit for United States consumption, 
and the Atlantic forests abound with fine tropical timber. Hon- 
duras ''mahogany," which is not mahogany at all, is a beautiful 



218 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

cabinet wood. Gold and silver are exported, although mining de- 
velopment is small. Cocoanuts and rubber also are exported. The 
United States supplies a large part of the imports, in which tex- 
tiles and hardware are prominent. The Atlantic ports have regu- 
lar steamship connection with the United States. The Pacific 
coast, only forty miles long, has the fine natural harbor of 
Amapala, from which the metals are shipped. Races, Spanish- 
American and Indians; language, Spanish. Religion, Roman 
Catholic. Exports (1916-17), $5,353,450; imports, $6,193,160. 

Hong Kong: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

Rowland Inland: — see Phoenix Islands, p. 254. 

Hungary. — Sometimes known as the Magyar Republic. It is 
difficult to tell how much is left of Hungary; but it is to embrace 
the country dominantly Magyar. The western boundary should 
be approximately the old political one with Austria, beginning 
with longitude 16° east; the eastern end is likely to run to longi- 
tude 22° 15'; the border with Czecho-Slovakia is about latitude 
49° 30' north, while that with Jugoslavia will not go below 45° 45'. 
The area is impossible to compute, owing to uncertainty as to 
how much of old Hungary is lost to other states. It may be no 
more than one-third of Hungary proper in 1914, or 36,000 square 
miles, with a population of some 6,000,000. The part of Hungary 
left to the new republic contains most of the finest agricultural 
land of the great Hungarian plain, and agriculture is certain to 
be the chief occupation of the people. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
maize, apples, plums, tobacco, wine and beet-sugar are the most 
important products. Animal-raising is a large industry. Chief 
city and present capital, Budapest, 880,000 (1910). The country 
will be prepared to export large amounts of livestock and cereals, 
and will import chiefly cotton and its goods, machinery, wool and 
woolens, iron and its wares, leather. 

Huon Island.^: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. 

Iceland.— Latitude 66° 33'-63° 12' north, longitude 24° 35'- 
13° 22' west; area, 40,437 square miles; population, estimated, 
93,000. Iceland is one of the newest of sovereign nations, its inde- 
pendence dating from December 1, 1918, with the full consent of 
Denmark, whose dependency it had been since 1380. It has the 
distinction, too, of having been the first modern republic, this form 
of government obtaining for nearly 400 years, ending in 1264 by 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 219 

union with Norway. The present form of government is that of 
a limited monarchy, in close affiliation with Denmark. Capital 
and chief town, Reykjavik (about 7,000). The raising of cat- 
tle, especially sheep, and fishing are the sole industries. All 
cereal foodstuffs must be imported. Imports are, in addition, 
liquor, tobacco, metal utensils, timber, salt, coal; exports, sheep, 
horses, salt meat, wool and hides, fish, eiderdown, and woolen 
goods. Trade is largely with Denmark and Great Britain. Ex- 
ports and imports, about $2,900,000 and $2,500,000 respectively. 
The Danish colony in Greenland occupies 40,740 square miles 
and has a population of 12,000 (see Greenland). 

Isle of France: — see Mauritius, p. 235. 

India. — All that part of southern Asia under British law. Lati- 
tude 37 "-6° north, longitude 61°-101° east; area, British Prov- 
inces, 1,093,074 square miles, including feudatory states 1,802,629 
square miles; population (1916-17) 224,267,000 and 315,156,400, 
respectively; capital, Calcutta (1911), 1,222,313; other cities — 
Bombay, chief west coast port, 979,445; Madras, eastern port, 
518,660; Haiderabad, 500,623j Rangoon, 293,316; Lucknow, 259,798; 
Delhi, 232,837; Lahore, 228,687; Ahmedabad, 216,777; Benares, 
203,804. British India proper does not include the semi-inde- 
pendent states. The history of India extends back for about five 
thousand years. The Buddhist period furnishes authentic records 
at least 500 B.C. The invasion by Alexander the Great occurred 
327 B.C. ; there were Portuguese settlements in Hindustan in 1500 
A.D. The Dutch expelled the Portuguese; the discovery of the 
all-water route around Cape of Good Hope opened the way to Eng- 
lish occupation, and the formation of the East India Company. 
Under Lord Clive, the English occupation gradually covered all 
of Hindustan. The formation of the Empire of India was cele- 
brated by coronation ceremonies in 1903. Executive authority is 
vested in the Viceroy, appointed by the crown. India has three 
distinctly defined physical regions: the Himalaya Mountain dis- 
trict, the North Indian Plain, and the Plateau of the Deccan. The 
colossal ranges of the Himalayas stretch for 1,500 miles along the 
north wall of the country, dividing India from the plateau of 
central Asia. South of the Himalayas is the great North Indian 
Plain, well watered and for the most part well cultivated. East 
of the Indus delta, however, is the Thar Desert, which stretches 



220 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

away almost to the base of the Himalayas. The triangular plateau 
of the Deccan, from 1,600 to 3,000 feet liigh, occupies the south of 
the country. India has great rivers, but the only very important 
ones for navigation are the smoothly flowing Ganges, Bramaputra, 
Indus, and the Irawadi of Burma. The streams of the Deccan are 
too impetuous for convenient navigation. 

India has many kinds of climate; but all, except regions high 
among the Himalayas or in favored parts of the Deccan, may be 
called more or less tropical. Only two seasons are recognized — the 
dry and the rainy season. The southwest monsoon in summer 
brings an enormous quantity of water vapor, with which it 
drenches the Western Ghats, and usually has enough left for the 
interior highlands; but sometimes this monsoon does not continue 
long enough to give the Plateau of the Deccan sufficient rain. 
Then crops fail, and a famine may ensue resulting in the death 
of many thousands. Many millions of the inhabitants, being Brah- 
mans, are strict vegetarians, and mortality among them in 
time of famine is increased by the fact that they will not kill 
their domestic animals for food. The British authorities have 
inaugurated an elaborate system of public works, by laboring on 
which the natives can earn money when the wet monsoons fail, and 
thus buy the food which the government has stored for such 
occasions. 

More than 70 per cent, of the people are engaged in pasturage 
or agriculture. Their methods are primitive for the most part. 
Fertilizers are little used, but great irrigation systems have been 
developed in large districts. Rice, the principal food, can be culti 
vated only in well-watered regions such as Bengal, the coasts of 
the Deccan and the valleys. Wheat is sown chiefly in the drier 
northwestern part, mainly the Punjab; and, although it is an un- 
certain crop, it is often raised in enormous quantities, a great part 
of the crop being sent to Europe. Next in importance are the fiber 
crops. India sends a great deal of cotton to China and Japan, in 
addition to the supply consumed in its own manufactures. In 
1917 the weave of cotton cloth was 377,350,000 pounds. The fiber 
is shorter than American cotton, and is inferior in quality. Jute, 
cultivated in the damp warm climate of Bengal, holds second rank 
among the fibers. The teas of India and Ceylon have made great 
inroads into the Chinese tea trade of the British Empire, and are 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 221 

invading many other markets. Animal raising is not important; 
cows give very little milk, but zebus, an Indian variety of cattle, 
are used for draft purposes. The mineral production is relatively 
small, but increasing; in order of output the chief varieties are 
gold, coal, petroleum, manganese, salt. Little else is done to 
develop India's mineral wealth. India has been famous for cen- 
turies for its shawls, rugs, carpets, and textile fabrics. In recent 
years modern manufactures, such as tanneries, ship-yards, and 
iron foundries, have been built. The home supply of manufactures 
is still inadequate, and an enormous quantity of them is imported. 
Imports are chiefly from the United Kingdom, China and Hong 
Kong, Java, Borneo and Sumatra, and the United States; exports 
go mainly to the United Kingdom, United States, Japan, France, 
Ceylon. There are more than 205,000 miles of roads, and 36,000 
miles of railways; in several largo areas, the canals add greatly 
to the facilities for inland traffic. Religions, Brahman, Muham- 
madan, nature worship, Buddhist, Christian, Sikh. Exports 
(1916-17), $831,550,000; imports, $662,495,000. 

Baluchistan is a country consisting of several native states 
bordering British India on the west, and regarded as a dependency 
of it. Latitude 30°-25° north, longitude 61°-69°30' east; area, 
about 135,638 square miles; population (1911), estimated, 835,000; 
capital, Kalat ; principal port, Gwador. Tne various petty states 
of the country have been in existence since the fifteenth century. 
The Khem of Kalat is the head of a confederacy of chiefs, who 
administer internal affairs. Since 1876 a British Resident Agent 
has shaped foreign relations. 

The country is chiefly barren mountains, deserts, and sandy 
plains; its climate is dry, with great extremes of temperature. 
Agriculture is practiced wherever water is sufficient; wheat, barley, 
rice, maize, potatoes, and many fruits, of which the dates are 
famous. Useful minerals are considerable in number and value, 
but little worked. The commerce is insignificant. Dates and dried 
fish are exported to India. Baluchistan rugs are prized in every 
part of the United States and Europe. Most of the trade is with 
India. 

British Baluchistan is included within British Indian terri- 
tory. It is occupied by troops and fortified for the protection of 
India. A branch of the Sind-Pishin Railway extends from the 



222 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Indus River to Kandahar, Afghanistan. Quetta is the seat of gov- 
ernment. 

The Baluchs are a warlike Semitic people of Arab descent. The 
religion is that of Islam. 

Sikkim is an Indian state in the Himalayas, a dependency of 
India. Latitude 28° north, longitude 89° east; area, 2,818 scjuare 
miles; population (1911), 87,920. The country produces rice, 
maize, and fruits, and manufactures woolen cloths. A few copper 
properties are worked. The chief imports are cotton goods, oils, 
provisions, salt, silk cloth, sugar, tobacco, tea, rice; exports are 
grains, vegetables, hides, raw wool, lumber. The country is 
strategically important, for the principal trade route from Bengal 
to Tibet must traverse its valleys. Trade is with India. 

The Andaman Islands form a group in the Bay of Bengal, 120 
miles west of Burma; area, 2,260 square miles; inhabited by 
savages of the Negrito type, and convicts from India; population, 
about 17,000. The islands are a dependency of British India. 
Their chief importance is as a meteorological station for the vast 
Indian Ocean shipping. 

The Nicobar Islands are a group in the Bay of Bengal, south 
of the Andamans, 120 miles west of Malay Peninsula; area, 635 
square miles; population, about 9,000, mainly Malays. The com- 
merce of cocoanuts has been the support of the islands for 1,500 
years. The climate is tropical, and on the whole unhealthful for 
whites. 

The Laccadive Islands are a group lying 200 miles southwest 
of Hindustan; population, about 10,600 of mixed Hindu and Arab 
descent. The preparation and commerce of coir, the fiber of the 
cocoanut husk, is the industry that brings the islands in touch with 
the rest of the world. 

Ireland: — see Great Britain and Ireland, p. 208. 

Isle of Pines: — sec New Caledonia, p. 243. 

Italian Possessions. — Eritrea is a colony of Italy, on the west 
coast of the Red Sea. Latitude 18°-12° 30' north; longitude 36'- 
43° east; area, 42,800 square miles; population, estimated, 450,000, 
mostly nomadic. Seat of government, Asmara. Climate, semi- 
arid to arid, the effects of which are in part overcome by irriga- 
tion. Domestic animals are common, their produce supplying local 
trade, but as an industry the raising of animals is little developed. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 223 

Pearl fisliing provides a considerable income. Palm nuts and gold 
form part of the exports. Chief port, Massawah. Exports (1915, 
the largest year), $2,800,000; imports, $4,720,000. 

Italian Somaliland is a colony and protectorate on the east 
coast of Africa. Latitude 12° north-0° 15' south, longitude 42°- 
51° 30' east; area, 139,430 square miles; population, 450,000; capi- 
tal, Mogadisho (13,000). Cattle raising and agriculture occupy 
the people. Imports are yarn, timber, petroleum, rice, sugar, 
cotton goods; exports, butter, cotton, hides, dura. Exports are 
chiefly to Italy, Aden and Zanzibar; thence often to United States 
and Europe. Exports (1916), $1,460,000; imports, $1,520,000. 

Tripoli was Turkish from the sixteenth century until 1911, 
when it was annexed to Italy, the transfer being ratified by treaty 
in October, 1912. For governmental purposes the country is di- 
vided into Tripolitania and Cyranaica, with capitals at Tripoli 
(73,000) and Benghazi (35,000) ; the whole region is often referred 
to as Libia Italiana. Latitude 33° 15'-22° 15' north; longitude 9°- 
25° east; area, 406,000 square miles; population, estimated, 
529,000. Tripolitania is divisible into four zones, each with its 
own topography, climate and activities. In the various parts are 
cultivated palms, olive and fruit trees, cereals, esparto grass, 
grapes and ahuonds. Cyranaica produces olives and bananas ; it 
could well be developed as a cattle country. Ostrich feathers in 
large quantities pass through from the interior, for Paris and 
London. Sponge fishing is a large coastal industry. Exports 
(1915, the highest year), $1,060,305; imports, $10,023,050. 

The Italian concession of Tiensin, China, lies on the left bank 
of the Peiho River, with an area of three-tenths of a square 
mile; population, 10,017 (1915). Latitude 39° 15' north, longitude 
117° 15' east. It is of little direct economic importance, having 
only a strategic value. 

Italian Somaliland: — see Italian Possessions, p. 222. 

Italy. — A limited monarchy of Mediterranean Europe. Lati- 
tude 46° 40' (1914) -36° 40', territory in the Trentino regained by 
treaty in 1919 raising the upper boundary to about 47° 15'; longi- 
tude 6°15'-18°40' east; area, 110,632 square miles (1914); popu- 
lation (1915), estimated, 36,120,118. The additions by the Treaty 
of Versailles b(.*tween the Allied and Associated Powers and Aus- 
tria comprise a large area in the Trentino (''Italia Irridenta"), 



224 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

north of old Italy, the head of the Adriatic, Istria and much of 
the Dalmatian coast and islands. In addition Italy has received 
from Turkey a sphere of influence on the south coast of Asia 
Minor extending from the end of the new Greek territory of 
Smyrna eastward nearly to Alexandretta. The area and popula- 
tion are not estimated; capital, Rome, population (1915), 590,960; 
other cities— Naples, 697,917; Milan, 663,059; Turin, 451,994; 
Palermo, 345,391; Genoa, 300,139; Florence, 242,147; Venice, 168,- 
038. The northern part of Italy is continental and the southern 
part consists of a peninsula and a number of islands, including 
Sicily, Sardinia and Elba. The continental portion is the fertile 
plain of the Po River — historically the plains of Lombardy; it is 
the scene of Italy's greatest industrial and agricultural activity. 
The Apennines are the backbone of the peninsula. Most of the 
peninsula is well watered, but it has no large rivers. Much of 
the farm land is held in large estates, and leased in parcels to the 
peasants. Wheat is the chief crop, and much of it is used with 
Black Sea imports in preparing macaroni, of which Italy makes 
enormous quantities. The vine crops are close in value to wheat; 
the best qualities come from the south. Potatoes and maize are 
large crops, and beet sugar making is very extensive. Italy is the 
foremost country in Europe in the growing of rice. The produc- 
tion of raw silk is the largest in Europe. Most of the mulberry 
trees feeding the silkworms are on the Lombardy plains. Raw 
silk is sent to all the leading nations, silk manufactures being of 
much smaller importance. 

Italy is rich in some useful minerals, but very poor in coal, so 
that a great deal must be imported. The sulphur mines of Sicily 
supply much of the world's demand. Salt is obtained from mines 
or by evaporating sea-water. Iron ore is obtained chiefly from 
Elba, but most of it is exported, as there is little development of 
iron manufactures. The famous marbles of Carrara and Massa 
find a wide market. Because of the lack of coal, manufacturing 
enterprises are growing slowly. The chief industries are mining, 
metal making and construction work, textiles and agriculture. 
Imports, chiefly wheat, coal and coke, raw cotton, wool and woolen 
goods ; exports, raw silk, cotton goods, silk goods. Trade is mainly 
with United States, Great Britain, Argentina, France. Exports 
(1916), $617,665,955; imports, $1,678,035,215. Races, Italian, a 
branch of the Latin family. Religion, mainly Roman Catholic. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 225 

Ivory Coast: — see French Possessions ; Africa, p. 199. 

Jamaica. — The largest colony of Great Britain in the West 
Indies. Latitude 18° 30'-17° 45' north; longitude 78° 30-75° 45' 
west; area, 4,207 square miles; Turks and Caicos Islands, 224 
square miles; population (1916), 906,000; Turks and Caicos 
Islands, 6,000; capital, Kingston (1911), 57,379; other towns — 
Spanish To^v^l, 7,119; Port Antonio, 7,074; Montego Bay, 6,616. 
Jamaica was acquired by conquest in 1655, and its possession was 
confirmed by a treaty with Spain in 1670. Included in its ad- 
ministrative jurisdiction are Turks, Caicos and Cayman Islands, 
and ]\Iorant and Pedro Cays. A mountain range forms the axis of 
the island, extending through it from east to west, the highest peak 
rising to 7,400 feet. The climate although tropical is pleasant, and 
the island has become an attractive resort. The climate of the 
highlands is materially cooler than that of the coast lowlands. All 
tropical productions are grow^n to perfection. The sugar planta- 
tions were once famous, but many planters have abandoned the 
industry. Fruits, chiefly bananas and oranges, now form nearly 
half the exports. Coffee, rum, sugar, cocoanuts, logwood and 
extract, cocoa and Jamaica ginger are also important. The high- 
ways are good. Railways connect Kingston with Port Antonio and 
Montego Bay. Races, Negro, mixed breeds, white, and East 
Indians. Trade is chiefly with United States and Great Britain. 
Exports (1916), .$14,105,000; imports, $15,555,000. 

Turks and Caicos Islands have considerable foreign commerce 
of their own. Salt-raking is the chief industry. 

Japan. — An island empire, sometimes called the Great Britain 
of Asia. Latitude, including all dependent islands, 51°-22° north, 
longitude 120°-157° east; area, 260,738 square miles; population 
(1916), 76,684,558; capital, Tokio (1917), 2,244,796; Osaka, 1,460,- 
218; Kioto, 539,153; Nagoya, 389,272; Kobe, 498,317; Yokohama, 
428,663; Hiroshima, 167,400; Nagasaki, 136,800. International 
events have placed Japan in the first rank among nations. In the 
peace settlement between Japan and Russia, 1905, of the conten- 
tions that caused the war with Russia, Japan gained the half of 
Sakhalin Island from the 50th parallel south, and a suzerainty over 
Korea, which was annexed in 1910. In the war with China the 
island of Formosa was gained. In China the concessions gav^e to 
Japan practical control over the railways in Manchuria. In the 



226 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

war against Germany, Japan gained concessions in the Siiantung 
peninsula, and all the German insular possessions of Germany in 
Oceania, north of the equator. 

The empire consists of four large islands and a great number 
(nearly 4,000) of smaller ones. The islands are mountainous, and 
a few volcanic summits, such as Fujiyama, reach a height of 12,000 
feet or more. The narrow plains along the coasts and the fertile 
valleys among the mountains are the sources of wealth. There 
are no great rivers, but numerous mountain torrents pour down 
the slopes with short but rapid courses to the sea. An extensive 
system of canals provides irrigation that supplements the rain- 
fall. The climate is moist, and is cooler than that of countries of 
the same latitude on the west coasts of Europe or North America. 
Violent volcanic outbursts sometimes occur, and the country is 
liable to disastrous earthquakes. A destructive calamity of this 
nature, the Nagoya-Gifu earthquake of 1891, killed nearly 10,000 
people and destroyed 130,000 houses. 

Agriculture is the principal occupation, and is carried on with 
painstaking minuteness. Large areas in the mountain regions can- 
not be tilled, but many mountains are cleared of forest and culti- 
vated to their very tops; in places the bare rocks are covered with 
soil brought from a distance. All the lands belong to the state, and 
are leased to the farmers, who pay a land tax. The chief crop is 
rice. A large part of the crop is exported and a cheaper grain is 
imported for home use. The various cereals and vegetables are 
grown. Cotton is raised in the south. The mulberry thrives, and 
the largest island produces a large supply of raw silk. Tea, an 
important export crop, is grown extensively in the southern 
islands. The United States buys great quantities of Japanese tea. 
The most important members of the animal kingdom are silk- 
worms, bees and poultry. The mineral wealth is only moderately 
large, although coal is mined in Yezo and Kiusiu, and copper, gold 
and kerosene are produced in quantity. Japan has the largest 
copper mines of Asia, copper being the only metal exported. Iron, 
steel and their products are large imports. The empire abounds 
in the clays that are the basis of its famous earthenware 
industries. 

Modern manufactures have had wonderful development in the 
past forty years. The Japanese were quick to see the advantages 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 227 

of western methods, and have applied them with great skill. Many 
of their products, however, are not equal in quality to those they 
imitate. Their manufactures are in great variety, and not a few 
of them supply the home need. So many of the people have been 
diverted from farming to other industries that, in late years, the 
cost of living has considerably increased. Among the best indus- 
trial products are steamships and steam engines, cotton and silk 
goods. Milk and vegetables are preserved for export. The 
internal trade is facilitated by post-offices, excellent highways, 
7,500 miles of railroad, and 34,000 miles of telegraph and tele- 
phone lines. Most of the foreign trade passes through the port 
of Yokohama. Kobe is the second largest port. Silk, raw and 
manufactured cotton goods, copper, plaiting-straw, coal, sugar, 
matches and tea are the chief exports. The chief imports are raw 
cotton, iron and steel, oil cake, wool, machinery. Imports (1916) 
are from United States, China, British India, cliiefly; exports go to 
United States, China, Asiatic Russia, Great Britain. Races, Japa- 
nese and about 15,000 foreigners. Religions, chiefly Shintoism and 
Buddhism. Exports (1917), $80,150,000; imports, $51,789,000. 

Japanese Possessions. — Korea, or Chosen, Japan's largest out- 
lying possession, is described separately. 

Formosa (Taiwan) is an island belonging to Japan, 90 miles 
southeast of China. Latitude 25°15'-22° north, longitude 120°- 
122° east; area, 13,944; population (1916), 3,710,848, mainly 
Chinese, including 50,000 Japanese; principal city, Taihoku, 102,- 
250, including 6,000 Japanese. The island was settled long before 
the sixteenth century, at the date when its authentic history begins. 
It was acquired by Japan at the close of the war with China in 
1895. Gold and coal are abundant. Tea is grown for export, most 
of which is marketed at Amoy, China. Camphor, a go'*7ernment 
monopoly, is the product which chiefly connects Formosa with the 
rest of the world. Additional products are sugar, tobacco, oil, 
iron-work, flour, glass, bricks, soap. A railway extends from 
north to south through the island. Commerce is chiefly with 
Japan, China and United States. Exports (1916), $61,086,140; 
imports, $32,477,330. 

The Pescadores Islands (or Hokoto) are about twelve in 
number, with a total area of 50 square miles, and lying a short 
distance west of Formosa. 



228 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Sakhalin is a mountainous island off the coast of Siberia, from 
which it is distant at its nearest point not more than ten miles. 
It is separated from Siberia by the Gulf of Tartary, from the 
nearest part of Hokkaido by La Perouse Strait. The island is 
600 miles long and about 105 miles across in its greatest width 
(south of latitude 50° north) ; area, about 25,000 square miles, of 
which about one-half belongs to Japan and the remainder to 
Russia; population of Japanese territory (1915), 57,200; of Rus- 
sian portion, 34,000, At the close of the war between Russia and 
Japan, the southern half of the island, now called Karafuto, was 
ceded to Japan by Russia. Herring fisheries are the chief industry. 
Large portions could be agriculturally developed, and coniferous 
trees cover much of the land. Coal and alluvial gold are found. 
The Russian part of the isand is mainly a convict colony. No 
trade statistics. 

Kwantung is a leased area in Manchuria, at the southern end 
of the Liaotung Peninsula. Latitude 39° 30-39° north, longitude 
121°-122°30' east; area, 538 square miles; population (1917), 
855,100, chiefly Chinese. It contains the important cities of Dairen 
(formerly Dalny), the seat of administration, and Port Arthur. It 
came under Japanese control in 1904. The chief products are 
maize, millet, beans, buckwheat, wheat, rice, hemp, tobacco and 
vegetables. Salt is manufactured. The fishing industry is large. 
Port Arthur is the terminus of an important railway system, con- 
necting at Mukden with several lines. Trade is mostly with Japan 
and China. Exports (1916), $80,329,170; imports, $38,259,700. 

The Bonin and Sulphur Islands are two closely adjacent groups 
of 20 volcanic peaks. Latitude 27° north, longitude 142° east; 
area, 27 square miles ; population, estimated, 4,500. For many 
years the islands were regarded as a British possession, but in 
1861 Great Britain renounced her claims in favor of Japan. No 
commercial statistics. 

The Kurile Islands are a chain of 31 volcanic islands extending 
northeasterly from Japan, to which nation they belong. Latitude 
51°-44°30' north, longitude 136° 30'-156° 30' east; area, 6,068 
square miles; population, small. The islands are commercially 
unimportant. 

The Liukiu Archipelago (also Loo Choo, Luchu, and Riukiu) is 
a long chain of 55 volcanic islands extending from Formosa to 



DESCRIPTION OP" POLITICAL DIVISIONS 229 

Japan. Latitude 30°-24° north, longitude 123°-130° east; area, 
941 square miles; population, estimated, 455,000. The islands, 
claimed for many years by Japan, became a possession of that 
nation at the close of the war with China in 1895. Sugar, lacquer, 
and pongee silk are the only important articles of commerce. No 
commercial statistics. 

Japan, Mandatories of. — In general, the Peace Conference has 
made Japan the Mandatary for the ex-German colonies, leases 
and concessions on the Chinese mainland and the Pacific islands 
north of the equator. 

Kiauchau is a district on the Shantung Peninsula. Latitude 
36° north, longitude 120° east; area on land, 200 square miles; 
area of bay, 200 square miles; population, about 192,000. Sur- 
rounding the district is a neutral zone extending in a semi-circle 
around the bay for a distance of 30 miles from water, having an 
area of 2,500 square miles and a population of 1,200,000; virtually 
German. In 1897 Germany seized the territory, and exacted from 
China valuable mining and railroad concessions in the guise of 
a 99-year lease. The region is important as a port of entry for 
interior Chinese trade, and is active industrially. Fruits, })eans, 
peanuts, and sweet potatoes are grown; silk culture, coal mining 
and briquetting, brewing and soap making are other industries. 
Imports are cotton and cotton goods and yarn, metals, paper, 
sugar and matches; exports, straw braid, silk, peanut and bean 
oil, and pongee silks. Exports (1916), $19,966,385; imports, 
$15,651,820. 

In 1899 the Caroline, Palao (Palau or Pelew), and Mariana 
(Marianne or Ladrone) Islands were ceded by Spain to Germany; 
w4th the exception of Guam, the largest of the Marianas, which 
had passed to the United States in 1898. 

The Caroline Islands are an archipelago of three groups of 
coral islands east of the Philippines, numbering about 500. Lati- 
tude 12°-3°30' north, longitude 138°-162° east; area, estimated, 
380 square miles; population, estimated, 36,000, Malays and Chi- 
nese. Copra is the only export. 

The Palao (Palau or Pelew) Islands are a group of about 26 
islands west of the Carolines. Latitude 9°-3° north, longitude 
131°-138° east; area, about 175 square miles; population, about 
3,000. They were discovered in 1543. They were a Spanish pos- 



230 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

session until 1899, at which time they were purchased by Ger- 
many. The islands are of strategic importance only. 

The Mariana (Marienne or Ladrone) Islands form a group 
north of the Palaos. Latitude 2r-12"30' north, longitude 
144°-146° east. They are inhabited mainly liy Tagals descended 
from Filipinos. The largest, Guam belongs to the United States. 
Just after the Spanish-American War they were sold by Spain 
to Germany for about $4,200,000. Copra and mother-of-pearl 
are exported. No trade statistics. 

The Marshall Islands consist of two chains of coral lagoon 
islands, called the Ratack (13 islands) and Ralick (11 islands) 
groups. Latitude 15°-4° 40' north, longitude 162 "-177" east; area, 
estimated, 160 square miles; population (1913), estimated, 15,179. 
Possession taken by the Germans in 1885. The natives are 
Malays; they are intelligent, and famous as sailors and boat- 
builders. Copra and tortoise shell, and mother-of-pearl shell are 
exported, and phosphates form the chief item. 

Java: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Jarvis Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Jebel Shammar: — see Nejed, p. 239. 

Juan Fernandez Islands: — see Chile, p. 179. 

Jugo-Slavia {Serb-Croat and Slovene State). — A new state of 
southern Europe, uniting Serbia, Montenegro and the portions of 
Austria and Hungary inhabited mainly by Coats and Slavonians. 
Latitude 47°40'-40° 50' north, longitude 14° 30'-23° 10' east. The 
boundaries will be based upon racial distribution rather than upon 
physical or past political factors. An important portion is the 
Dalmatian coast, which, from the head of Dalmatia to the northern 
boundary of Albania, furnishes the only sea-outlet for the Jugo- 
slavs. Much of the coast is valueless, in spite of good harbors, 
because of the inaccessibility of the hinterland. The vital neces- 
sity of such outlet accentuates the controversy with Italy over 
the possession of Fiume. The area and population are as difficult 
to determine as those of the other new countries; tentative esti- 
mates are 86,600 square miles and 14,000,000. Chief ports, Fiume, 
through which all the products of the northern sections must pass 
out, whoever may control the city; Ragusa, Cattaro; inland are 
Belgrade, the capital of old Serbia ; Sarajevo and Nish, all impor- 
tant railway centers. The country has great extremes of topog- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 231 

rapliy, climate and resources. The western section is wild, largely 
barren limestone, but containing some very fertile valleys as in 
Dalmatia. The northeast is in the great Hungarian plain region, 
and rich in agricultural opportunity. Serbia has some restricted 
areas of rich soil, but much lean country as well. On the whole, 
agriculture is backward. Cattle-raising is important in parts, and 
both could be developed much farther; manufacturing industries 
are few and primitive. Roads have been exceedingly poor, but 
a beginning has been made of improvement, through the construc- 
tion of some modern military roads during the war. Railway 
communication is limited by topography, enhancing the commer- 
cial and strategic value of such roads as exist. The notorious 
*' Berlin to Bagdad" railway required a line from Belgrade 
through Serbia toward Constantinople to make the plan feasible. 

Kaiser Wilhelm's Land (German New Guinea) : — see Aus- 
tralia, Mandatories of, p. 153. 

Kamerun: — see Cameroons, The, p. 176. 

Karikal: — see French India, p. 197. 

Kasligaria: — see Sin-Kiang, p. 267. 

Keelinrj Island: — see Cocos Islands, p. 183. 

Kerguelen Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Kermadec Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. 

Khiva: — see Russian Possessions, p. 263. 

Kiauchau {ex-Germa7i) : — see Japan, Mandatories of, p. 229. 

King's Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Korea: — see Chosen, p. 182. 

Koweit. — A small country of eastern Arabia, lying at the head 
of the Persian Gulf, between 29° 40-29° north latitude; with 
Mesopotamia on the north and Hasa on the south. It is under 
British influence. Its chief importance comes from the port of 
Koweit, with a foreign commerce of $800,000 to $1,000,000 yearly. 
The imports are chiefly arms and ammunition, piece goods, coffee, 
sugar and rice ; exports, horses, pearls, dates, wool. Its physical 
characters are like those of Oman and Ilasa. 

Kulja: — see Sin-Kiang, p. 267. 

Kuria-Muria Islands: — see Aden^ p. 143. 

Kurile Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 

Kwang-Chau-Wan: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. 

Kwaniung : — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 



232 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Labrador: — see Newfoundland, p. 243. • 

Lahuan Island: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Laccadive Islands: — see India, p. 219. 

Ladrone Islands: — see Mariana Islands, p. 235. 

Laos: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. 

Latvia. — A state proposed in the Peace Conference to embrace 
the country occupied predominantly by the Letts, taken from the 
Riga region of western Russia. It consists of Courland, western 
Vitebsk and southern Livonia. Latitude 58°-55°40' north, longi- 
tude 21 "-28° east; area, impossible to determine at this stage, pos- 
sibly 25,000 square miles; population (1913), possibly 2,360,000. 
It contains -the great ports of Riga, 569,000 (1913), and Libau, 
91,000. The northern part is plateau-like, with poor soil and many 
glacial lakes, and largely forest-clad. Agriculture is advanced 
and scientific. Dairy farming and cattle-raising are important 
occupations. Through Riga are exported petroleum, wool, oil- 
cake, flax, linseed, timber and wood manufactures. Manufacturing 
is extensive. The Dvina River is an important highway. The Cour- 
land section is mainly low and flat, and often marshy. Cattle- 
raising, as well as agriculture, has reached a high state of success. 

Leeward Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Leeward Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. 

Les Salutes Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 
Liberia. — A Negro republic in West Africa. Latitude 8°30'- 
4° 30' north, longitude ll°-7°30' west; area, estimated, 40,000 
square miles; population, including 12,000 Negroes from the 
United States (1915), estimated, 2,000,000; capital, Monrovia, esti- 
mated, 6,000. The state originated in the efforts to provide 
colonization of freed American slaves. First settlement at Mon- 
rovia 1822; the state was constituted in 1847. The boundaries 
were tentatively determined by an Anglo-Liberian agreement in 
1885. The constitution is modeled after that of this country. 
With a coast line of 350 miles, Liberia is confined to the basins of 
the coast streams, none of which is important for navigation. The 
civilized population lives in towns along the coast and the farming 
districts near them, or penetrates a short distance up the streams. 
Behind the mangrove and pandanus swamps near the coast the 
country rises towards the interior, the successive steps of eleva- 
tion being marked by rapids in the rivers. Most of the interior is 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 233 

covered with dense forests, among which the native population 
chiefly lives in a state of barbarism. The country is cursed by 
malaria. Nearly all the colonists live by farming or the collection 
of palm oil and palm kernels. The chief exports are coffee of 
excellent quality, rubber, cocoa, ivory, ginger, and palm oil. Im- 
ports are rice, tobacco, gin, timber, galvanized iron, clothing, dried 
fish. Race, Negro ; under the law no white man may become a citi- 
zen. The official language is English, and most of the civilized 
Negroes are Protestants. Exports (1913), $1,337,197; imports, 
$902,663. 

Liechtenstein. — An independent principality between Austria 
and Switzerland, formerly part of the Rhine confederation, since 
the dissolution of which it has remained separate. Latitude 
47° 15'-47° 05', longitude 9° 25-9° 35' east; area, 65 square miles; 
population (1912), 10,716. Inhabitants chiefly German Catholics. 
Industry mainly agriculture, products being corn, wine, fruits, 
lumber. Cattle of fine quality are raised in the upland pastures. 
No trade statistics. 

Lithuania.- — A state proposed in the Peace Conference, to be 
taken from Russia, comprising the region predominantly occupied 
by people of that race. A recognition of the country was given 
by the Germans in the spring of 1918, covering a far greater ter- 
ritory than is likely to be accorded to it. In general, as now con- 
stituted, it occupies the government of Kovno, the northern part 
of Suwalki, and a small area in East Prussia north of the Memel 
River. Latitude 56 ° 30-54 ° 40' north, longitude 21°-27°20' east; 
area, approximately 17,000 square miles; population, possibly 
2,100,000; chief city Kovno, 92,810 (1913). There is doubt regard- 
ing the southeastern boundary, where is a broad strip of debatable 
ground between Lithuania and Poland. The Lithuanians are 
allied to the Letts. The country is low and flat, with sandy soil 
and ''black earth," many lakes and several navigable rivers, such 
as the Dvina, Nieman and Windau. Agriculture is the chief occu- 
pation, northern grains and vegetables being raised and exported. 
Cattle-breeding and dairying flourish. Manufacturing has con- 
siderable opportunity. 

Little Elohey Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. 

Liukiu (Riukiu) Archipelago: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 
227. 

Lombok: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 



234 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Lord Howe Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. 

Louisiade Archipelago: — see Papua, p. 250. 

Low Archipelago: — see Paumotu Archipelago, p. 251. 

Loyalty Islands: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. 

Luxemburg. — A grand duchy of Europe on the southeast slope 
of the Ardennes. Latitude 50° 10'-49° 25' north, longitude 5° 44'- 
6° 31' east; area, 998 square miles; population (1911), 259,891; 
administrative city, Luxemburg (1910), 20,848. From 1815 to 1866 
a member of the Germanic confederation. It was declared a neu- 
tral territory and its integrity and independence guaranteed by 
a treaty of London, 1867. It was invaded by the Germans and 
occupied by them in the World War of 1914. The agricultural 
interests, including wine, mines, quarries and industrial establish- 
ments, are important. Nationalities, German and about 4,000 
French-speaking persons. Religion, Catholic; language, a Ger- 
man patois with many French words; French is the commercial 
language. One of the iron j&elds in eastern France extends into 
it, and the production of iron ore in 1916 was 1,580,530 tons. No 
available trade statistics. 

Macao: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Macaulay Island: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Madagascar. — A colony of France and the fourth largest island 
in the world. Latitude 12°-25° south, longitude 43°-51° east; 
area, estimated, 228,000 square miles; population (1916), esti- 
mated, 3,512,695; capital, Antananarivo (1914), 63,115; chief ports, 
Tamatave, 8,647, and Majunga, 7,205. The people, consisting orig- 
inally of small, independent tribes, were unified about the seven- 
teenth century. Acquired by the French by conquest in 1885. The 
whole island was declared a French colony in 1896. Madagascar 
is 980 miles long; its broadest portion is 360 miles across. It 
has but few indentations except on the northwest coast, where the 
best harbors are situated. Since French occupancy the island has 
been considerably explored. The elevated interior is the most 
healthful region. Around it is a comparatively level country, 
extending to the sea, much of it heavily wooded, very fertile, but 
not healthful. The leading rivers flow to the west coast, and some 
of them are navigable by small vessels for 100 miles. The capital 
is in the elevated interior, where live the Hovas, the most advanced 
and intelligent of the native tribes. A railroad between Tamatave 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 235 

and the capital is in operation. There are wagon roads from 
Antananarivo to both coasts. Cattle breeding and agriculture are 
improving under the French regime, and many schools and a 
number of hospitals have been established. The variety of agri- 
cultural products now grown is very large; the forests are rich in 
useful woods and gums; a considerable number of minerals are 
worked, and altogether the possibilities of the island are very 
great. The exports are caoutchouc, rubber, wax, hides, rice, gold 
and vanilla. Imports are cottons, clothing, beverages, metals. 
Races, Malagasy tribes, mainly Hovas, and Europeans. Religions, 
Protestant and Catholic. Exports (1916), $17,203,000; imports, 
$20,391,000. 

Madeira Islands: — see Portugal, p. 256. 

Madura: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Make: — see French India, p. 197. 

Make Island: — see Seychelles Islands, p. 266. 

Malacca: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Malaysia: — see Australasia, p. 152. 

Malay States, Federated: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 
165. 

Malay States, Unfederated: — see British Possessions; Asia, 
p. 165. 

Maiden Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Maldive Islands: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

Malta: — see British Possessions; Europe, p. 172. 

Manchuria: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. 

Manono: — see German Samoa, p. 206. 

Manus Island: — see Taui Island, p. 273. 

Mariana Islands (German New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- 
tories of, p. 229. 

Marie Galante Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 

Marquesas Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 
202. 

Marshall Islands {Ger^nan New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- 
tories of, p. 229. 

Martinique Island: — ^see French Possessions; America, p. 201. 

Mauritania: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Mauritius: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. 

Mayotte: — see Madagascar, p. 234. 

Melanesia: — see Australasia, p. 152. 



236 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Mesopotamia. — In general, the watershed of the Tigris and 
Euphrates Rivers, lying between the mountains of western Per- 
sia on the east and the great Arabian and Syrian desert on the 
southwest except, at the north, where it adjoins the mountain 
region of Kurdestan. On the south, where it is extremely narrow, 
it reaches the head of the Persian Gulf. The term is loosely used, 
and the confines of the region are impossible to define; but roughly 
it lies between 38°-30° north, and 38°-48° east. With a very 
ancient history, and under Turkish control since 1562, it is likely 
to be separated from Turkey and made a mandatory of one of 
the Allied and Associated Powers. Properly administered, it lias 
in parts a great future as an agricultural country. The climate is 
varied, but harshly tropical over much of the region. Winter is 
the rainy season of growth, and by midsummer vegetation is 
parched. Sandstorms are widespread and frequent. In ancient 
times irrigation was practiced; and it is all the country requires 
today to make large areas extraordinarily productive. Modern 
irrigation works were projected on a large scale by the British, the 
first being opened for use in 1913 ; but only a small beginning has 
been made. Bagdad, 225,000, is the chief city; Mosul, 80,000, 
lies farther up the Tigris, and Basra, 80,000, at the head of navi- 
gation of the Shat-el-Arab, the master stream formed of the 
Tigris and Euphrates. 

Mexico. — A republic of North America. Latitude 33° 30'- 
14° 30' north, longitude 117°-86°30' west; area, 767,198 square 
miles; population (1912), estimated, 15,500,000; capital, City of 
Mexico (1910), 471,066; chief ports. Vera Cruz, 48,633; Tampico, 
Progreso, Port of Mexico, Salina Cruz, Acapulco, Mazatlan ; other 
cities, Guadalajara, 119,468; Puebla, 96,121; Monterey, 73,528; San 
Luis Potosi, 68,022. Mexico was an Aztec kingdom, acquired by 
Spain through conquest in 1521. Spanish rule was ended by a 
revolution led by the patriot priest Hidalgo, 1810. Republic estab- 
lished, 1824. An overthrow of the republic was attempted by the 
leading powers about the time of the Civil War in the United 
States. War with the United States in 1846; a rebellion in 1913, 
since which the republic has been in an unsettled state. Mexico 
is a wide, high table-land between the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Pacific Ocean, with mountains rising above the plateau on the east 
and west. There are many volcanic peaks, a few of which are 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 237 

active. The rivers are of little economic importance, the chief 
streams being the Rio Grande del Norte, forming the northeast 
boundary. On the low and marshy coasts a hot and unhealthful 
climate prevails. The coast lowlands are called tierra calienta. 
The tierra templada occupies the middle slopes of the coast moun- 
tains, and the lower parts of the plateau in the interior, where the 
climate is temperate and spring seems to be everlasting. The cold 
zone, tierra fria, is found on the more elevated table-lands; the 
loftier summits are crowned with snow. The rainy season lasts 
from May till October. The northern part of Mexico is an arid 
region, the industries of which are mining and grazing. The agri- 
cultural part is chiefly in the south. 

With great variety of climate, Mexico has many agricultural 
products, but farming has not reached a high level, although rapid 
progress is now being made. About one-seventh of the surface has 
been cleared for tillage. The tropical lowlands produce vanilla, 
coifee, sugar-cane, cotton. In Yucatan the fiber commercially 
known as sisal hemp has become the largest agricultural export. 
Maize and beans are very large crops, and are the staple articles of 
diet. The favorite national drink, pulque, is prepared from the 
agave. Many tropical and other timbers are found in the forests. 
Most of the agricultural products are consumed at home, and 
Mexico's tropical fruits, tobacco and coffee have not yet entered 
largely into the world's trade. The breeding of domestic animals 
is growing in importance. Ranches are numerous in northern 
Mexico, many of the cattle being sent into the United States. The 
horses, mules, cattle, sheep and hogs are numbered by millions. 
But the chief source of wealth is the mineral products. 

Mexico is the richest silver-producing country in the world, and 
also has large quantities of gold and other metals. The total pro- 
duction of gold and silver in the three centuries is about $4,000,- 
000,000. Iron ore is abundant, and coal is found, but compara- 
tively little is mined. The precious metals, chiefly silver, form the 
greater part of the exports. The oil fields in the vicinity of Tam- 
pico are among the most productive in the world, the output in 
1918 being scores of millions of barrels. A large part of the 
product is used by the British navy; a considerable part is mar- 
keted in the United States. The exports of oil from Mexico in 
1917-18 to the United States were 39,011,095 barrels; to other 



238 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

countries, 14,281,276 barrels. The copper mines of Cananea, near 
the northern boundary, are among the most productive in North 
America. 

The Gulf ports. Vera Cruz and Tampico, have been converted 
into safe and commodious harbors. Vera Cruz, for sisal hemp, is 
the chief port of the country, Progreso is the shipping port of 
Yucatan. The leading Pacific ports are Mazatlan, San Bias, Man- 
zanillo and Acapulco, but they have little trade. Railroads reach 
all the most important commercial centers, and connect at Eagle 
Pass, El Paso and Laredo with the railroad systems of the United 
States. The ship railway across the isthmus of Tehuantepec is 
controlled by an English company. Races, Mexican, Spanish, and 
Indian. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. The exports are mainly 
silver, gold, copper, and sisal hemp. Textiles, hardware and 
machinery are leading imports, half of them coming from the 
United States and the remainder from Europe. Exports (1912- 
13), $150,202,800; imports, $97,886,000. 

The Revilla Gigedo Islands are a group attached to the state 
of Colima, Mexico, situated about 420 miles west of Mexico. The 
islands are peopled by a few savages. 

Micronesia: — see Australasia, p. 152. 

Miquelon Island: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. 

Molucca Archipelago: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Monaco. — An independent principality, largely surrounded by 
French territory, in the extreme southeastern part, between Nice 
and Mentone. Latitude 43° 45' north, longitude 6° 15' east; area, 
8 square miles; population (1912), 22,956; cities, La Condamine, 
.11,082; Monte Carlo, 9,627; Monaco, 2,247. Founded in the tenth 
century. In 1848 Mentone and Roccabruna seceded, leaving the 
present state wholly within France, except as fronting on the sea. 
A constitution was promulgated in 1911. The income of the state 
is derived chiefly from the tax imposed upon the famous gambling 
establishment maintained there. Olive oil, oranges, and citrons 
are exported. Perfumery is manufactured. Races, French and 
Italian. Trade is included in the statistics of France. 

Mongolia: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. 

Montenegro: — see Jugo-Slavia, p. 230. 

Montserrat: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Movant Cay: — see Jamaica, p. 225. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 239 

Morocco. — A sultanate and absolute despotism of northwest 
Africa. Latitude 36°-28° north, longitude 11°-1° west; area, 
about 231,500 square miles; population, estimated, 6,000,000; capi- 
tal at the pleasure of the sultan; cities, Fez, 106,000; Marakesh 
(Morocco), 99,500; Casablanca, 82,500; Tangier, chief port, 46,000; 
Rabat, port, 37,500; Meknes, 36,700; all estimated, and about one- 
fifth of European descent. For the past half-century Morocco has 
been desired by each of several European powers, but political 
sentiment has prevented any material changes of government. 
Since 1912 the country has been a French protectorate, but with 
a Spanish influence recognized in the form of zones in certain 
cities. Tangier, an internationalized city, is the principal sea- 
port and the seat of the foreign consuls. 

Although mountainous in the north and south, Morocco on its 
central plateaus has rich opportunities for agriculture and stock- 
raising. Its undeveloped mineral \vealtli is very great, and in 
natural resources the state is regarded as richer than any other of 
the Mediterranean countries of Africa. It is, however, of little 
commercial importance, for the government is despotic, the taxes 
are onerous; life and property are not safeguarded; and the 
fanatical populace bitterly hate all peoples of non-Muhammadan 
faith. Under such conditions, extensive commercial development 
is impossible. Practically every change for the better has been 
thwarted by political intrigue. Races, Berber, Arab, Negro. 
Religion, Muhammadan. The imports are chiefly cottons, sugar, 
liquors, tea, flour, groceries and provisions, machinery and hard- 
ware, vegetables and fruit; exports, barley, wool, eggs, wheat, 
beans, maize, canary seed. Trade is mainly with France, Algeria 
and Great Britain. Total exports (1916), $18,925,000; imports, 
$65,200,000. 

Mozambique: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Nantucket Island: — ^see Baker Island, p. 154. 

Natal: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. 

Nauru (Pleasant) Island (ex-German) : — see Great Britain, 
Mandatories of, p. 210. 

Nejed. — The great desert of central Arabia has been claimed 
by Turkey as the vilayet of Nejed, but its control over the 
nomadic tribesmen has been nominal at best. Now entirely sepa- 
rated from Turkey, it is unlikely, because of the natural inde- 



240 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

pendence of its people and their fighting qualities, to join with 
Hejaz or any other state. The whole country is a high desert 
with scattered oases, inhabited by a very sparse population and 
incapable of maintaining more. The only means of subsistence 
must always be a small number of animals and the edible vege- 
tation of the oases. While it may not become tributary to another 
state, it will remain one of the regions of the earth that are vir- 
tually irreclaimable, not contributing appreciably to the advance- 
ment of mankind. 

Nejed is bounded on the north by Jebel Shammar, regarded by 
Turkey as an emirate. This region is but a continuation of the 
desert to the south, occupied by people wilder and more nomadic, 
and containing fewer and poorer oases. Whether this country, 
which has been virtually independent for seventy years, will re- 
turn to the jurisdiction of Nejed is doubtful. In any event, it will 
contribute little to the economic well-being of this section of Asia. 

To the south, occupying the coastal strip, lies the relatively 
fertile region of Hadramaut, extending from Yemen and Aden 
on the west to Oman on the east. The coastal plain has nowhere 
a breadth greater than ten miles, while to the north is the escarp- 
ment of the Arabian plateau. Despite these limitations and the 
small rainfall, the country supports a vigorous population and 
produces some little foreign commerce. Technically it has been 
a part of Nejed, but what attitude it will assume since freed from 
Turkish influence cannot be foretold. 

El Hasa occupies the west coast of the Persian Gulf from 
Oman on the south to Koweit near the head of the gulf, or be- 
tween latitude 29° 20' and 25° 10' north. It has been a dependency 
of Turkey, lately within the emirate of Nejed; but must be 
regarded as separate today from both. Its future is problematical. 
The British control of Mesopotamia, reaching southward through 
Koweit, may embrace it. The coast is low and unhealthful, even 
where fertile. The interior is part of the sterile Arabian plateau. 
Oases are not rare, however, and water is found, even outside 
them. The inhabitants are partly nomadic, partly sedentary, and 
there are several fixed towns as in Hadramaut. The region prom- 
ises little, however, except as an outpost of some other country. 

Nepal. — An independent kingdom in the Himalayas. Latitude 
30°17'-26°25' north, longitude 80°6'-88°14' east; area, about 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 241 

54,000 square miles; population, estimated, 5,000,000; capital, 
Katmandu (50,000). Inhabitants, chiefly Gurkhas. Religion, 
primitive Hinduism. Country under British influence. Chief 
imports, cattle, salt, spices, sugar, tobacco, drugs and dyes, 
petroleum, leather, brass, iron and copper utensils, cotton and 
silk, cotton and woolen cloth; exports, cattle, hides, drugs, gum 
and resin, jute, cereals, spices, tobacco, timber, saltpeter. Exports 
to British India (1916-17), $6,810,000; imports, $13,230,000. 

Netherlands, The. — A limited monarchy of Europe. Latitude 
53° 30-51° 40' north, longitude 3°20'-7°15' east; area, exclusive 
of water, 12,582 square miles; population (1917), 6,583,227; capital, 
Amsterdam (1917), constitutional, 628,404; Hague, the seat of 
government, 334,081; other cities— Rotterdam, 487,077; Utrecht, 
133,344; Groningen, 86,287; Haarlem, 73,307. The United Prov- 
inces of The Netherlands was made a state in 1795, and a kingdom 
in 1815. A flat country with monotonous plains, interrupted only 
by dunes and a few higher undulations in the east and south. The 
dunes, stretching along the coast, owe their existence to the winds 
and waves, which heap the sand into rows of hills. One-fourth of 
the country lies below sea-level, some districts being from 12 to 20 
feet below. Engineering plans now under advisement are reclaim- 
ing an area from the Zuider Zee aggregating 523,000 acres. Most 
of the country would be permanently under water, were it not 
protected from the sea by the dunes and gigantic embankments of 
earth faced with stone or protected by stakes. These works are 
called dikes, and they protect the coast from the sea at the points 
where there are no dunes. The climate is oceanic and moist. The 
summers are not very warm and the winters are not often very 
cold. The North Sea washes the whole coast line, which is difficult 
of access on account of the dunes. The chief rivers are the Rhine, 
the Meuse, or Maas, and the Scheldt. The river mouths, with their 
ebb and flow, and a number of bays, chiefly in the Zuider Zee, form 
the few harbors, of which Rotterdam and Amsterdam command 
nearly all the sea trade. 

The country is a land of canals, all the towns and villages being 
connected by them. These furnish about 2,000 miles of inland navi- 
gation. The railways total about 3,000 miles. The most important 
waterways are the North Holland Canal, from Amsterdam to 
Helder, which, however, is not wide enough for modern large ships 



242 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

to enter; the North Sea Canal, 16 miles long, utilized by large 
steamships between Amsterdam and the North Sea ; and the Rhine 
Mouth Canal, which gives Rotterdam a deep channel to the sea. 
The most fertile provinces are in the north and west, and in a part 
of Limburg, where agriculture has reached a very high stage. 
Grain, potatoes and vegetables are the chief crops. The Dutch 
excel in the cultivation of flowers, vegetables and fruit, whicli are 
important exports to neighboring countries, chiefly England. The 
country imports its timber, because it is almost destitute of forests. 
One of the greatest national resources is cattle rearing, which has 
attained a development equaled in few other countries. Live 
cattle are exported, and enormous quantities of cheese and butter 
are sent abroad, mainly to London. The superior horses bring 
large prices. Sheep are bred mainly for mutton, great quantities 
of eggs are sent to England, and fishing is a large source of wealth. 
The supply of minerals is scanty, but some coal is mined in the 
southeast. A considerable part hitherto has been obtained from 
Germany. Peat is the chief fuel, and is cut in large quantities. 
The Netherlands is not an industrial state, its manufactures hardly 
meeting its own demand. Calicoes are made in great quantities for 
the colonial trade. Earthenware of all kinds is produced, there 
being no building stone, and billions of brick are required for build- 
ing operations. Tobacco manufactures and sugar-refining are 
among the other leading industries. Diamond cutting has de- 
creased, as the industry has to a large extent been transferred to 
Paris and London. Railroads are used chiefly for passenger traffic 
and the international freight trade, the canals being the main reli- 
ance for domestic transportation. A very large part of the exports 
and imports consist of "transit trade" — that is, the goods originat- 
ing in Germany which cross The Netherlands to be shipped from 
Amsterdam or from Rotterdam. The Dutch have one of the 
largest colonial empires, and exploit their colonies strictly for their 
own benefit; and these possessions are a great source of wealth, 
giving The Netherlands much of its importance as a commercial 
nation. Races, Dutch and other Europeans. Religions, Protes- 
tant, Roman Catholic, and Hebrew. The chief trade is in colonial 
products, but the larger part of the exports of home products goes 
to neighboring countries. The larger part of the imports are from 
Prussia, Dutch East Indies, Great Britain, and United States ; the 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 243 

exports go to the same countries. Exports (1913, the highest 
year), $1,285,000,000; imports, $1,032,500,000. 

Neu Hannover Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Neu Lauenhurg Islands: — see Duke of York Islands, p. 188. 

Neu Mecklenburg Island: — see New Ireland Island, p. 244. 

Neu Pommern Island: — see New Britain Island, p. 243. 

Neiv Britain Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

New Caledonia: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. 

Newfoundland and Labrador. — An insular crown colony of 
Great Britain. Latitude of the island, 51° 40-46° 40' north, longi- 
tude 59 ° 20-52 ° 40' west; area, 42,734 square miles; population 
(1917), 252,836; capital, St. John's (1911), 32,292; other cities- 
Harbour Grace, 4,279; Carbonear, 3,540; Bonavista, 3,900. De- 
pendent upon Newfoundland is Labrador, a narrow strip on the 
mainland coast of the Labrador Peninsula. Latitude 65°-56° west, 
longitude 61°-52° north; area, 120,000 square miles; population 
(1916), 4,073; a bleak and storm-swept country, in which fishing 
is the chief occupation. Newfoundland was acquired by Great 
Britain in 1583. At the close of the French and Indian wars it 
was ceded to Great Britain in 1763 by the treaty of Utrecht. It 
is not a province of the Dominion of Canada. The fisheries of 
Labrador being practically monopolized by Newfoundland fisher- 
men, the Labrador coast is united with Newfoundland for adminis- 
trative purposes. St. John's is nearer to Europe than any other 
port of America, being only 1,675 miles from Cape Clear, on the 
west coast of Ireland. The east coast of Newfoundland is there- 
fore an important locality for the Anglo-American ocean cables 
and for radio-telegraphy, and has recently been used as a point of 
departure for trans-Atlantic flight. Although good farming land 
is plentiful in the west and in some of the valleys, the fishing 
industry dominates everything and agriculture is neglected. 
Nearly the whole population is devoted to the fishing trade during 
some part of the year. The hair seal is hunted by many vessels 
for its oil and skin; and the cod, herring and lobster fisheries 
give employment to many. Fish are cured in great quantities. 
Dried codfish form about half the exports; fish otfal is exported for 
fertilizer. Cod liver oil is used in nearly every part of the world. 
Seal skins are also exported. Wood pulp for the manufacture of 
paper, next to codfish, is the most important product. Mineral 



244 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

resources are important, the bedded iron ores of Bell Island, espe- 
cially, furnishing Canada with much of its iron. The chief imports 
are flour, textiles, hardware; exports are dried cod, pulp and 
paper, herring, iron ore. Race, chiefly British. Religion, Protes- 
tant. Exports (1915-16), $19,500,000; imports, $10,883,000. 

New Guinea: — see Papua, jj. 250. 

New Hebrides Islands: — see British Possessions, and French 
Possessions; Australasia, pp. 1G9 and 202. 

New Ireland Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

New Territories: — see Hong Kong, p. 218. 

New Zealand. — A British Dominion, consisting of North Island, 
South Island, Stewart Island, and the Cook, Chatham, Auckland, 
and Kermadec groups. Latitude 34 ° 30'-47 ° 30' south, longitude 
166°30'-178°30' east; area. North Island, 44,130 square miles; 
South Island, 58,120 square miles; Stewart Island, 622 square 
miles; total with nearby islands, 103,581 square miles; population 
(1916), North Island, 651,072; South Island (including Stewart 
and Chatham Islands), 448,933; total, exclusive of Maoris and 
Cook Islanders (62,513 in 1916), 1,099,499; seat of government, 
Wellington (1916), 95,235; other cities— Auckland, 133,712; Christ- 
church, 92,733; Dunedin, 68,716. Probably settled by Polynesians 
in the fourteenth century. English missionaries and various 
traders settled in the islands early in the nineteenth century; in 
1852 the colony became self-governing; in 1907 the Dominion was 
formed. The islands are mountainous, the loftiest peak being 
Mount Cook, in South Island (12,349 feet). The climate is oceanic, 
but the loftier mountains are snowclad, afforing a rich supply of 
water to the broad valleys and the plains bordering the sea. The 
mean temperature of Auckland is 68° F. in January and 50° F. in 
July. All the climatic conditions make New Zealand a delightful 
place of residence. Two-thirds of the country is suitable for agri- 
culture and grazing. The leading branch of farming is cattle and 
sheep raising, the industry being stimulated by the luxuriant 
meadows and prairies. This fine natural condition for the animal 
industry is enhanced by the cultivation of fodder root crops. 
Sheep are most numerous in the southern part of North Island 
and the eastern part of South Island. Wool is the most important 
export crop. Cattle are extensively raised and the exports of 
butter, cheese and refrigerated meats to Europe are very great. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 245 

The common farm crops of the temperate zone are rapidly develop- 
ing and the farm lands aggregate about 16,800,000 acres. The 
damp, steep western slope has little agriculture, but the warm, dry 
plains of the east of South Island especially make ideal farming 
lands. A great amount of wheat, linseed and oats is raised. 
Phormium, or New Zealand flax, grows wild, and is used for 
making paper, cordage and some fabrics. Gold, silver, coal and 
petroleum are also large resources. The chief manufactures deal 
with the working up of animal products. Most of the foreign trade 
is with Great Britain ; wool, meats, gold, grain and Kauri gum are 
exported. Australia comes second, and United States third. 
Eaces, chiefly British and Maori. Religion, Protestant. Exports 
(1916), $166,435,000; imports, $131,696,500. 

Attached to New Zealand are several groups of islands. The 
Auckland Islands are 200 miles south of Stewart Island. Latitude 
50° south, longitude 166° 20' east; area of the largest island, 330 
square miles ; uninhabited ; used only as a refuge for shipwrecked 
mariners, a station being maintained on the largest island. 

The Chatham Islands. Latitude 43° 50' south, longitude 177°' 
west ; 536 miles east of New Zealand ; area, 375 square miles ; popu- 
lation (1916), 477. 

The Cook Islands are an archipelago, containing several 
smaller groups. Latitude 8°-23° south, longitude 157°-170° west; 
area, about 280 square miles; population (1916), about 13,000, 
Legends of the native peoples, practically all Polynesians, point to 
the belief that the islands were peopled by Samoans. The islands 
have been under the administration of New Zealand since 1901. 
Copra, coffee, pearlshell, fruits, hats and caps, and lime juice are 
the export products. Fourteen islands or groups constitute the 
archipelago. Of the latter are the Parry, Hervey, and Savage 
Islands. 

The Kermadec Islands are a group in latitude 36° south, longi- 
tude 178° 30' west. They are of strategic value only, being unin- 
habited at present. Total area, 15 square miles. The chief islands 
are Raoul or Sunday, and Macauley; smaller ones are the Camp- 
bell, King's, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands. 

New Zealand, Mandatory of. — One ex-German colony has been 
granted to New Zealand as mandatory by the Peace Conference. 

German Samoa. Latitude 14° south, longitude 172° west. Of 



246 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

the Samoan group, the islands of Savaii and Upolu were given by 
Great Britain to Germany in 1899. Area, Savaii, 660 square miles ; 
Upolu, 340 square miles; population (1912), 35,000; chief port, 
Apia on Upolu. Two other small islands, Manono and Apolima, 
also belonged to Germany. Inhabitants, Polynesian, nominally 
Christians. The country is extremely fertile. Exports (1915), 
$1,311,950; imports, $118,550. 

Nicaragua. — A republic of Central America. Latitude 15°- 
10° 45' north, longitude 87 ° 30'-83 ° 15' west; area, estimated, 
49,200 square miles ;' population (1914), estimated, 703,600; capital, 
Managua, 34,872; other cities— Leon, 62,569; Granada, 17,092; 
Matagalpa, 15,749. A part of the Spanish possessions, declared 
independent of Spain in 1821. The Mosquito coast, now Bluefields, 
under British protection for many years, was turned over to Nica- 
ragua in 1906. By a treaty in 1916, the United States acquires the 
right to construct an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua, together 
with the occupation of Fonseca Bay as a naval base. Nicaragua 
is the largest state of Central America, with extensive seaboard on 
both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The population is 
largest on the Pacific slope of the state (over 75 per cent.). 

The eastern part is covered with tropical forests containing 
''Honduras mahogany," other cabinet woods, and dyewoods. 
Bananas are extensively grown in the valley of Bluefields River 
and its estuary. They are the chief export of the eastern part, 
being shipped from Bluefields, the chief Atlantic port. The 
commerce of the fruit-growing industry is controlled practically 
by the United Fruit Company. The principal export product of 
the western country, coffee, is chiefly grown around Leon. The 
mines yield gold, silver, and copper. They are operated mainly 
by American and British companies. Many of the coffee planta- 
tions are owned by Americans. Cattle in the northwest supply 
many hides for export. Corinto, most important for commerce, 
and San Juan del Sur are the Pacific ports. A railway connects 
Corinto with the large interior towns. Races, Spanish-American 
and Indian. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), 
$5,285,000; imports, $4,777,600. 

Nicobar Islands: — see India, p. 219. 

Nigeria and Protectorate: — see British West Africa, p. 173. 

Ninigo Group: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 247 

Nissan Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 
North America.— Latitude approximately 83°-7° north, longi- 
tude 170° east to 50" west; area, about 8,000,000 square miles 
(16 per cent, of all the lands) ; here interpreted to include all land 
south to the limit of Panama. Its great range of latitude results 
in most varied climate; but a relatively small portion is dry 
desert, and no very large percentage is cold desert. The northern 
portion was completely covered by ice during the Ice Age recently 
past, and its soils show marked effects of the mixing action so 
characteristic of glaciated areas. To this may be attributed the 
fertility of some and the endurance of other parts. The land con- 
tains some of the largest areas of fertile soil in the world; its 
manufactures lead the industrial world, and its commerce, chiefly 
from United States, today commands the world's trade. Its out- 
look on two oceans aids greatly in its commercial relations. It 
is unlike other continents in having a small number of countries 
instead of being dissected into many small nations like Europe, 
or possessing numerous tributary states like Asia or Africa. 
Northern Territories: — see British West Africa, p. 173. 
North Island: — see New Zealand, p. 244. 

Norway. — A kingdom and constitutional monarchy occupying 
the western and northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. 
Latitude 71° 30-58° north, longitude 5°-36° east; area, 124,643 
square miles; population (1910), 2,391^782; capital, Kristiania 
(1910), 241,834; other towns— Bergen, 76,867; Trondhjem, 45,335; 
Stavanger, 37,261; Dramen, 24,895. The chronicles of Norse 
vikings date back several thousand years. The period of written 
history begins in 1204. In 1814 Norway was made an independent 
kingdom in union with Sweden. In 1905 the union was dis- 
solved and Haakon VII became king. Norway is a mountainous 
coast country on the north Atlantic; the entire shore line 
including fiords and large islands, being about 12,000 miles long. 
The prevailing westerly winds, warmed by their passage over the 
Atlantic, keep the fifty ports among the fiords open the year 
around, for the drift of warm ocean water keeps the harbors free 
from ice. The same influence makes oats a flourishing crop at 
64°, and barley even at 70°. The country is so rugged that not 
much of the land produces food staples, and over 75 per cent, of 
the surface is unproductive. The grain and potato crops satisfy 



248 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

only one-half of the domestic consumption. The most impor- 
tant vegetable resource is the forests, which cover one-fourth 
of the area; the timber is close grained and tough, and Norway- 
is one of the leading lumber-producing countries. Sufficient 
cattle and sheep are reared to meet the home requirements, but 
only a small quantity of wool is exported. The most valuable 
animal product is derived from the sea, the cod and herring 
fisheries yielding millions of dollars every year, and providing 
a large part of the food of the inhabitants. The principal cod 
fisheries are off the Lofoten Islands; the less valuable herring 
fishery is pursued all along the coast. The mining interests are 
important. Iron ore for smelting, and iron pyrites, used in the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid, are the chief mineral products. 
Copper and nickel are also mined. The abundance of water power 
not only stimulates lumber manufacture, but as hydroelectric 
power carries the manufacturing industries to the various centers 
of population, Kristiania, Bergen and Trondhjem are the leading 
ports. Races, Norwegians, Finnish and Lapp. Religion, chiefly 
Lutheran, the state church. Exports are mainly to United States, 
Great Britain, Germany and Sweden; imports from Germany, 
Great Britain, Sweden and United States. Exports (1915), 
$186,944,800; imports, $241,102,000. 

Nyassaland Protectorate: — see British Possessions; Africa, 
p. 162. 

Oceania (Oceanica) : — see Australasia, p. 152. 

Ocean Island: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 

Old Kowloon :—see Hong Kong, p. 218. 

Oman. — An independent state in the southeastern part of 
the Arabian peninsula. Latitude 26° 30-17° north, longitude 
50°30'-60° east; area, 2,000 square miles; population, estimated, 
500,000; capital, Muskat (24,000). Occupied by the Portuguese 
until the middle of the seventeenth century, later becoming an 
independent sultanate. Has gradually lost much of its territory. 
The Arab population is unstable, and the little land possible for 
agriculture is but slightly tilled. Camels in large numbers are 
bred on the inland desert. Commerce, chiefly by caravans and 
sea routes, is with United Kingdom, India, Persia, and France. 
Exports, chiefly dates, limes, fish, cotton goods; imports, rice, 
coffee, cloth, cereals. Trade figures incomplete., 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 249 

Orange Free State: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. 

Palao Islands (German New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- 
tories of, p. 229. 

Palestine. — The Holy Land occupies southern Syria, and by 
the Syrians is not regarded as a separate unit. It begins at the 
north at the latitude of Beirut, 34° north, and extends to the 
boundary of Iledjaz on the south, about 30° north. To the west 
lies the Levantine Gulf, to the east the Arabian desert at the 
south, and part of Syria proper farther north. Jerusalem, 
85,000, is the largest town; others are Jaffa, 45,000, and Gaza, 
40,000. There are no good ports. The topography is varied, part 
of it being rugged, with bare rock surfaces or thin soil. The val- 
ley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea is a remarkable down-fallen 
block of the earth's crust, called a "rift" valley, and its surface 
is below sea-level at the Dead Sea. In the larger valleys the soil 
and water afford good vegetation, and agriculture flourishes; but 
as a whole the country cannot be made to feed a large popula- 
tion. Sub-tropical fruits and grains are the produce. Area, about 
13,970 square miles; population, 1,074,100. 

An extensive movement has been launched to make of Palestine 
an independent Jewish state, possibly as a mandatory under one 
of the Allied and Associated Powers. 

Palmyra Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Panama. — A republic of North America. Latitude 9° 30'-7° 15' 
north, longitude 83° 30-77° 15' west; area, 32,380 square miles; 
population (1916), exclusive of canal zone, 450,000; capital and 
Pacific port, Panama (1915), 60,028; Atlantic port. Colon, esti- 
mated, 26,000. Formerly a state of Colombia. On the refusal of 
Colombia to ratify a treaty with the United States respecting the 
Panama Canal, the state of Panama seceded in 1903 and declared 
itself an independent republic. The state and the isthmus are 
practically one, extending from Colombia to Costa Rica. The 
ranges of mountains that border the Pacific coast of the continent 
give shape to the isthmus. About 150 short rivers flow to the sea 
from the northern side, and more than twice that number drain 
the Pacific slope. The largest river, Tuira, is navigable for river 
schooners as far as Santa Maria del Real. The Bayamo, discharg- 
ing into the Gulf of Panama, is said to be navigable for small 
craft for 120 miles. Panama has many bays and ports on both 



250 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

oceans, but most of them are unavailable for commerce. There is 
no hinterland which offers an easy field for development. Dense 
forests cover three-fourths of the state, and the greater part con- 
sists of unoccupied land. The climate and the products are 
tropical. The Canal Zone, the cities of Panama and Colon 
excepted, is under the control of the United States ; the two cities 
are under the jurisdiction of the state. The production of the state 
consists mainly of bananas, coffee, and caoutchouc and these are 
the chief exports. Cattle raising is successful, and hides are 
exported. Panama and Colon are the only important ports. The 
people represent an admixture of Spanish, Negro and Indian 
blood. The great traffic crossing the isthmus is almost wholly 
transit trade. Imports are chiefly from United States. Exports 
(1916), $5, 709,225; imports, $9,397,365. 

Panama Canal Zone: — see United States, Outlying Terri- 
tories, p. 285. 

Pangkor (Dindings) : — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Papua: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Paraguay.— A republic of South America. Latitude 21°-27° 30' 
south, longitude 61 ° 30-54 ° 30' west; area, estimated, 65,000 
square miles, exclusive of the Chaco claimed also by Bolivia 
(about 100,000 square miles), population (1917), estimated, 
1,000,000; capital, Asuncion, estimated, 120,000; other cities — 
Villa-rica, 26,000; Concepcion, 15,000; Carapegua Luque, 15,000, 
all estimated. Paraguay gained independence of Spanish rule 
in 1811. The history from that time was turbulent and revo- 
lutionary. Peace came with a new constitution in 1870. One 
of the smallest states of South America; it does not touch the 
sea, but the Parana and Paraguay rivers, accessible to large 
steamers, give it an outlet to the Atlantic. It is mountainous 
in the east, has a sub-tropical climate, agreeable and healthful, 
and receives abundant rainfall. Most of the country is well 
adapted for foreign colonization. The western part, bordered by 
the Pilcomayo River, is a low, warm plain, interspersed with 
forests and especially adapted for cattle raising. The eastern 
and more populous region is mainly covered with dense forests 
with great but undeveloped wealth in timber, interspersed with 
plains, especially towards the south, which are splendidly adapted 
for cattle and farming. The vast resources of all kinds are still 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 251 

little developed. Rice, sugar-cane, maize and the potato are the 
chief farm crops, but the great product is mate, or ''Paraguay 
tea," which is both cultivated and gathered wild. It is exported 
to the amount of about 15,000,000 pounds a year and is sold 
chiefly to people in several South American states. It is regarded 
as an excellent substitute for tea and coffee. Tobacco is also 
grown for export. Domestic animals are confined chiefly to cattle 
which are raised mostly for local consumption. Iron, kaolin 
and salt are abundant but little developed. A few home industries 
supply most of the demand except for textiles and hardware. 
Raihvays connect Asuncion with the Uruguay raihvay lines and 
also with Buenos Aires. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. 
Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1913, the highest year), 
$5,631,000; imports, $8,120,000. 

Parry Islands: — see Cook Islands, p. 184. 

Paumotu (Low) Archipegalo : — see French Possessions; Aus- 
tralasia, p. 202. 

Pedro Cay: — see Jamaica, p. 225. 

Pelew Islands: — see Palao Islands, p. 249. 

Pemha Island: — see British East Africa, p. 160. 

Penang: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Perak (Dindings) : — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Perim Island: — see Aden, p. 143. 

Persia. — A despotic monarchy of southwest Asia. Latitude 
39° 45-25° north, longitude 44°-62°20' east; area, estimated, 
628,000 square miles; population, estimated, 9,500,000; capital, 
Teheran, estimated, 280,000; other cities— Tabriz, 200,000; 
Ispahan, 80,000; Meshed and Kirman, 60,000 each. The ancient 
history of Persia extends several thousand years back of the 
Christian era. In the early period of written history it was occu- 
pied by Aryan people. The name "Iran" commonly used as a 
name of Persia means "Aryan." Cyrus, Xerxes, and Darius, 
kings of Persia, were sovereigns whose fame extends throughout 
the world. The last-named is a factor in Masonic history. Alex- 
ander the Great overcame the kingdom about 331 B.C. At the be- 
ginning of the World War, Great Britain and Russia commanded 
spheres of influence that covered most of the kingdom. At that 
time German aggression was already in evidence. Persia is a high 
table-land, more than a third of it is a sandy desert and salt plain, 



252 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

mountainous in the west and north. Cultivation is confined mainly 
to the irrigated valleys of the western part. The rainfall is largely 
deficient; the climate healthful, but very warm. The Persian 
monarch assumes the title of Shah-in-shah, or King of Kings, and 
his government is an Oriental despotism. The administration is 
corrupt, but the adoption of European innovations in the army has 
given to Persia an appearance of progress. During the World 
War a part of the country was a battleground between the Ger- 
mans and the Allies. The real wealth is in arbori-culture, par- 
ticularly fruits. Cotton raising has made great progress. All 
kinds of minerals are found, but they will not be available until 
the methods of transportation are improved and mining regions 
are opened to foreigners. Most turquoises, however, come from 
Persia. House industries supply most of the local demand, and 
the Persians are famous for the carpets and rugs of Tabriz, 
Kermanshah, and Hamadan. These form the export that brings 
Persia in touch with most of the world. Silk and opium produc- 
tion are large and increasing. Race, Persian. Religions, chiefly 
Muhammadan, Christian, and Jewish. Imports are in excess of 
exports; textiles, glass, sugar, kerosene and tea and coffee being 
large purchases. Cotton, fruits, wool, silk, carpets, pearls, and 
turquoises are the chief exports. Exports (1913-14, the highest 
year), $41,440,000; imports, $58,833,000. 

Peru.— A South American republic. Latitude 3° 30-18° south, 
longitude 81° 30-71° west. The western extremity of Peru and of 
South America is in practically the longitude of Cleveland, Ohio. 
Area, 722,462 square miles; population, estimated, 4,500,000 (no 
official statistics) ; capital, Lima (1913), 143,500; chief port, Callao, 
34,346 (1905); other cities— Arequipa, 35,000; Ayachuco, 14,346; 
Iquitos, 12,000; Cuzco, 12^000. Like other one-time Spanish pos- 
sessions, Peru declared itself independent in 1821. The present 
constitution went into effect in 1860. Peru has a long littoral 
on the Pacific, and a part of its territory extends to the east 
of the Andes, giving access to the Atlantic by the Amazon River. 
Ocean steamships ascend to Iquitos, the collecting market for 
the eastern forest products. The plain between the Andes ranges 
and the Pacific is a desert, with ribbons of verdure along the 
streams, bordered by irrigated plantations where sugar-cane, 
cotton and tobacco are raised. The mountain ranges are eco- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 253 

nomically important for their vast stores of minerals and the 
rivers that their melting snows send to the sea. The forests east 
of the mountains are rich in rubber and cinchona, from which 
quinine is prepared, and have splendid prospects for tropical agri- 
culture, as yet little developed. The climate is tropical in the low- 
lands. Agriculture is limited to the production of food consumed 
at home. The plantations supply some export cotton, rice and 
coca, from which cocaine is derived. Sugar-cane is grown for 
home refineries. Cattle are numerous among the foothills of the 
Andes. The alpaca supplies much wool, and the llama is used 
chiefly for mountain transportation. Sugar, cotton, copper, and 
petroleum are the chief exports; imports arc cloth, wheat, lumber, 
coal. Mining is restricted l)y the lack of transportation. Of 
the 1,700 miles of railway only a few lines reach the mineral dis- 
tricts. Short extensions will connect the Peruvian centers with 
lines converging at Buenos Aires. Manufactures are confined to 
sugar refineries, tanneries, coca laboratories, breweries and a few 
cotton mills. The largest imports are textiles, iron and steel goods, 
machinery and groceries. Race, Spanish-American and Indian. 
Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $82,705,300; imports, 
$43,415,750. 

Pescadores Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 

Philippine Islands. — A group of the Malay archipelago consist- 
ing of 3,141 islands, of which about 2,750 are very small islets. 
The largest, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Palowan, Panay, Samar, 
Negros, and Leyte comprise the important members of the group. 
Latitude 21° 30'-4°30' north, longitude 117°-12r)° 41' east; area of 
Luzon, 40,814 square miles; Mindanao, 36,906 square miles; total 
estimated area, 120,000 square miles; population, estimated, 
9,000,000; capital, Manila, 266,943; other cities, Iloilo, on Panay, 
estimated, 60,000; Cebu, on Cebu, estimated, 60,000. The 
islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521. By the Bull of Pope 
Alexander VI they were a possession of Spain. They were ac- 
quired by the United States at the close of the Spanish-American 
War in 1898. Mountains are the chief topographic feature. The 
larger islands, especially Luzon and Mindanao, have broad, well- 
watered plains that are tillable, but not over a third of the area is 
adapted for cultivation. The climate is tropical, the night breezes 
from the sea affording some relief, but as a whole the islands are 



254 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

not healthful for the white race. The population is densest in 
Luzon and the Visayas, or central islands. Rice is the chief pro- 
duction, but in poor years much is imported from Cochin-China, 
as this grain is the chief food. Manila hemp, a strong, coarse fiber 
derived from a species of the banana, is the best material for 
cordage and sailcloth and is a large export, the Philippines being 
as yet the chief source of supply. Copra and sugar comprise 
about one-third of the value of the exports. Tobacco is also an 
important crop, the best growing in northern Luzon, whence it is 
sent to other parts of Asia. Manila cigars have a large sale also 
in the United States. The mineral wealth is large but undevel- 
oped. The United States has established local self-government 
wherever-^ practicable, is efficiently protecting life and property, 
and is developing the islands by establishing agricultural experi- 
ment stations and schools. The government has surveyed the 
coasts in the interests of fishing, and in many other ways is 
doing much to facilitate progress. The Tagals of Luzon and the 
Visayas are more advanced in civilization than the other natives, 
who include the dwarf Negritos and the Muhammadan Moros. 
Races, Malayan, Negroid, Chinese and whites. Over 3,000,000 pro- 
fess Christianity (Roman Catholic). Imports are chiefly cotton 
goods, hardware and machinery, and rice, exports, hemp, sugar, 
copra, tobacco products. Exports (1917), $17,715,375; imports, 
$51,983,273. 

Pho&nix Islands: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Pitcairn Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Pleasant Island {ex-German) : — see Nauru Island, p. 239. 

Poland. — Perhaps the most important, as it is the most inter- 
esting, of the new states created or recognized by the Allied and 
Associated Powers. In general, it is to comprise the region occu- 
pied chiefly by Poles. A definite portion of German territory 
was ceded to it from Germany by the Treaty of Versailles (1919), 
amounting to 20,780 square miles, and a smaller area, 5,723 square 
miles, is to decide by vote whether to join it or to remain in East 
Prussia. The 729 square miles embraced within the Free City 
of Danzig will be dominantly under Polish influence. The main 
body of the country is the Russian province of Poland, with a 
small area of Suwalki lost to Lithuania at the north. In addition, 
a large region adjacent on the east is included, comprising sev- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 255 

eral Russian governments, and inhabited by White Russians and 
Ukranians, as well as Poles. Galicia, taken from Austria, seems 
likely to be included, as also a considerable section of northeastern 
Hungary. As thus constituted, Poland stretches from 5(3^-54° 40' 
north, and 16°-28°30' east. The area is impossible to estimate 
accurately; but may be stated tentatively at 105,000 square miles. 
The population is not known, but is probably in excess of 
35,000,000. Drained by the Vistula, the state would yet be too 
centrally located for effective growth, were it not for the "cor- 
ridor" accorded to it by the Treaty of Versailles, running down 
the river and separating Prussia from East Prussia. Danzig, at 
the mouth, has been internationalized, giving to Poland good, if 
somewhat inadequate, coastal outlet. 

Poland has great age as a nation; but has not persisted, in 
part because of a lack of natural boundaries to reinforce the racial 
ones. Now, however, with the League of Nations to aid it in 
resisting aggression, it should not only maintain its integrity, but 
become one of the great countries of Europe. Its topography 
and climate are alike varied; and its industries are as a result 
numerous. The area includes some of the best agricultural land 
in eastern Europe, and contains vast stores of mineral wealth, 
coal, iron, oil and lesser varieties. Forests are extensive. Manu- 
facturing is on a large scale, and can be vastly increased. Alto- 
gether, Poland, if properly governed, can become one of the most 
productive countries of Europe. Important cities are AVarsaw, 
910,000 (1913); Lodz, 416,000; Vilna, 204,000; Lemberg, 212,000 
(1914); Krakau, 171,000 (1914); Danzig, 170,000 (1910) will be 
virtually Polish commercially. 

Polynesia: — see Australasia, p. 152. 

Pondichery: — see French India, p. 197. 

Porto Rico (Puerto Rico). — An outlying territory of the 
United States in the West Indies. Latitude 18° 30-17° 50' north, 
longitude 17° 15-65° 15' west; area, 3,606 square miles; popula- 
tion (1914), estimated, 1,184,500, a density of about 325 per square 
mile; capital, San Juan (1910), 48,716; other cities— Ponce, 
63,444; Mayaguez, 42,429. Porto Rico was discovered by Colum- 
bus on his second voyage, in 1493. It remained a Spanish pos- 
session until 1898 when, at the close of the Spanish-American 
W^ar, it w^as ceded to the United States. Although Porto Rico is 



256 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

not yet a Territory by enactment, it has a territorial organi- 
zation. The island is 95 miles long and 35 broad. The central 
range of mountains extends nearly the entire length of the island, 
condensing the moist trade winds; so that the northern half of the 
island has abundant rainfall, while the fields of the southern half 
often require irrigation. For this reason- the streams of the 
northern slope contain more water than the southern rivers, and 
many small boats carry farm produce to the north coast towns. 
Alluvial plains skirt the coast, but most of the island is broken. 
The tropical climate is tempered by the trade winds. In the late 
summer and autumn the island is visited at times by severe hurri- 
canes. Most of the farms are small, and four-fifths of the popu- 
lation are engaged in agriculture. The staple products are coffee, 
sugar and tobacco. The coffee shrubs, grown in the shade of 
banana and guava trees, do best on the foothills. The quality of 
the bean is excellent, and the product meets with ready sale. 
Sugar-cane is planted chiefly on the alluvial coastal plains, and 
sugar is about one-half the total value of exports. Bananas, pine- 
apples and grape fruit are important export products. The finest 
tobacco districts are in the inland mountain regions. The mineral 
resources are not large, but the evaporation of brine supplies the 
island with about 10,000,000 pounds of salt a year. Iron ore, 
gold and copper ore occur. Gypsum, useful in making stucco, 
is plentiful, and there is an abundance of building stone. The 
United States has connected the important towns with good roads, 
and these have an aggregate length of more than 1,000 miles. 
Railways practically encircle the island. San Juan and Ponce are 
connected by an excellent macadam road, and sections of a coast 
railroad that is to extend around the island are in operation. 
Steamers ply around the island as well as to the United States, 
Europe and neighboring islands. Races, whites, Negroes and 
mixed breeds. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Nearly all the 
trade is with the United States. Exports (1917), to United States, 
$73,115,224, to foreign countries, $7,855,693; imports from United 
States, $49,539,249, from foreign countries, $4,005,975. 

Portugal. — A republic at the western extremity of the Iberian 
Peninsula. Latitude 42°-37° north, longitude 9°30'-6°15' west; 
area, excluding Azores and Madeira, 34,254 square miles ; popula- 
tion (1911), 5,545,595; capital, Lisbon (1911), 435,359; other 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 257 

cities— Oporto, 194,000; Setubal, 30,346; Braga, 24,647; Coimbra, 
20,581. An independent monarchy, founded in the twelfth century. 
Portugal became a republic in 1910. Most of the country is moun- 
tainous. The plains, very fertile, are almost wholly confined to 
the west coast and along the rivers. The climate is oceanic, and 
high degrees of temperature are registered only in the south. 
Rainfall is considerable, especially in winter and spring. The 
rivers Tagos, Douro, Guadiana and Minho are navigable to the 
Spanish frontier. Flax and southern fruits are large crops. Wine 
growing is the most noted branch of husbandry, and in the quality 
of its wine, Portugal is one of the leading wine countries. Port 
wine receives its name from the city of Oporto where it is still a 
market product. Madeira wine bears the name of the islands that 
made it famous. Cork derived from the bark of a species of oak 
is sent to all civilized lands. The country has great mineral 
resources, but the industry is backward and the mines are chiefly 
in the hands of foreigners. Sea salt obtained by evaporation is 
a large product. The manufactures do not meet the home demand 
either in quality or quantity. The manufacture of porcelain tiles, 
inherited from the Moors, is carried on in the larger cities, and 
these are sold all over Europe. Railroads connect all the chief 
centers of population, and domestic trade is facilitated by rivers. 
Much produce is brought in from the colonies, the leading imports 
being grain, cotton, coal, and timber. The chief exports are wine, 
cork, salt, copper and fish. Race, Portuguese. Religion, Roman 
Catholic. Exports (1913, the highest year), $40,761,000; imports, 
$89,900,000. 

The Azores form an archipelago in the north Atlantic Ocean, 
including three groups of volcanic islands, belonging to Portugal 
and considered as a part of it. Latitude 40°-37° north, longitude 
31° 15'-24°45' west; area, 922 square miles; population (1911), 
242,613; chief ports, Horta, on Fayal ; Augra, on Terceira; and 
Ponta Delgada, on St. Michael's, 16,179. Submarine cables con- 
nect the islands with ports of the United States, Great Britain, 
and Portugal. Tropical fruit and wine are the principal exports. 
The position of the islands, 830 miles from Africa and 1,000 miles 
from the United States, makes them a natural way-station for 
trans-Atlantic flight. 

The Madeira Islands, also a corporate part of Portugal, are 



258 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

in latitude 33° 15-32° 30' north, longitude 17°30'-16° west; area, 
314 square miles; population (1911), 169,777; Funchal, chief town, 
24,687 (1911); location, about 360 miles from the African coast 
and 535 from Lisbon. The inhabitants are Portuguese, often with 
Moorish or Negro blood in the lower classes. The land is so 
steep and the rainfall so light that agriculture is difficult, irri- 
gation being largely practiced. Wine and sugar are the chief 
products. The islands were known to the Phoenicians in the 
fourteenth century, and were colonized by Prince Henry the Navi- 
gator in 1420. 

Portuguese East Africa: — see Mozambique, p. 239. 

Portuguese Guinea: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Portuguese India: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Portuguese Possessions. — The colonial possessions occupy 
936,264 square miles, with a population of 8,735,854. 

Portuguese India consists of Goa on the Malabar coast, 
Damao, on the coast 100 miles north of Bombay, and Diu, an 
island 140 miles west of Damao; area of Goa, 1,469 square miles, 
population, 515,772; area of Damao and Diu, 169 square miles, 
population, 32,700. Salt is the chief product, and manganese is 
mined somewhat extensively. Imports are three times the value 
of the exports. 

Macao, in China, is on an island at the mouth of the Canton 
River; area, 4 square miles; population (1911), 74,866. 

Portuguese Timor occupies the eastern part of Timor Island 
in the Malay Archipelago, with some adjoining territory. Lati- 
tude 10° south, longitude 125° east; area, 7,330 square miles; 
population, 377,815. Chief exports, coffee, sandal wood, copra and 
wax. The port is Delli. 

The Cape Verde Islands are fifteen. Latitude 21° 30-23° 
south, longitude 25° 30' to 23° west; area, 1,480 square miles; 
population, 149,793 (1912). Chief products, coffee, medicinal 
materials, millet, sugar, fish and straw hats. They have belonged 
to Portugal since their discovery, 1456. 

Portuguese Guinea is on the Senegambian coast west of 
Africa. Latitude 13°-10°30' north, longitude 16°30'-13° west; 
area, 13,940 square miles ; population, estimated, 289,000 ; includes 
many coastal islands. Chief port, Bissau. Chief products, rubber, 
wax, oil seed, ivory, hides. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 259 

Principe and St. Thomas Islands, about 125 miles west of 
the coast in the Gulf of Guinea, have belonged to Portugal since 
discovery in 1471. Latitude 0°, longitude 7° east; area, 360 square 
miles; population (1914), 58,907. The islands are dissected vol- 
canoes, with rich soil. Chief products, cacao, coffee and cinchona. 
Foreign trade considerable. 

Angola, or Portuguese West Africa, occupies a length of 1,000 
miles on the coast. Latitude 6°-18° south, longitude 12°-24° 
east; area, 484,800 square miles; population, 4,119,000; capital, 
S. Paulo de Loanda. Has been Portuguese since 1575. Chief 
products, coffee, rubber, wax, vegetable oils, cocoanuts, ivory, 
oxen and fish. Petroleum and asphalt are worked, and the coun- 
try is rich in mineral resources. Chief imports, textiles; exports, 
chiefly to Portugal, coffee and rubber. 

Mozambique, or Portuguese East Africa, occupies a strip on 
the coast from latitude 10° 30' to 27° 30' south, longitude 29° 30'- 
41° east; area, 426,712 square miles; population, 3,120,000; chief 
port, Mozambique, 362,734 (1910). Products are especially 
sugar, cocoanuts, wax and minerals, especially gold and coal. Im- 
ports are cottons, iron work, liquor; exports, rubber, ores, wax 
and ivory. Exports (1915), $33,615,000; imports, $10,279,000. 

Portuguese Timor: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Portuguese West Africa: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Principe Island: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Raoul (Sunday) Island: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Raioa Island: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. 

Reunion Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Revilla Gigedo Islands: — see Mexico, p. 236. 

Rhodesia: — see British South Africa, p. 173. 

Riau-Lingga Archipelago: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Rio del Oro and Adrar: — ^see Spanish Possessions, p. 269. 

Rio Muni Settlements: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. 

Rodrigues Island: — see Mauritius, p. 235. 

Rook Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

Rotumah Island: — see Fiji Islands, p. 193. 

Rumania. — A limited monarchy of eastern Europe. Latitude 
(1914) 48°15'-43°40' north, longitude 22 ° 30'-29 ° 45' east. The 
plans of the Peace Conference contemplate giving to Rumania a 
large area including Transylvania, most of Bukovina and the 



260 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

adjacent section of Galicia, part of Banat, and some of Hungary- 
proper, and the whole of Bessarabia, and taking away the south- 
ern part of Dobrudja, which is ceded to Bulgaria because of a 
prevailingly non-Rumanian population. It is difficult to forecast 
the results of the proposed changes; Bessarabia begins at 48° 40' 
north, extending to 35° 15' east, and contains 17,614 square miles 
and a population of 1,427,500 (1915). Of Banat about two-thirds 
would appear to be included, or 7,500 square miles; its population 
may amount to 1,000,000. Bukovina has an area of 4,000 square 
miles, with a population of 820,000, and nearly all both of land 
and of people would appear to go to Rumania. The area and 
population transferred from Hungary are difficult to calculate at 
the present stage. In general, the territory added to Rumania is 
that occupied predominantly by Rumanians. Area (1914), 53,490 
square miles; population (1912), 7,508,000; capital, Bucharest, 
population (1914), 345,628; other cities— Jassy, 76,120; Galatz, 
72,512. Most of the country is a well-watered plain, with skirts 
of the Carpathians "only in the west and north. The Danube is 
the chief river, navigable throughout, but of its tributaries only 
the Pruth is navigable for steamers and the Sereth for rafts. An 
international commission for the regulation of the traffic of the 
Danube formerly sat at Galatz. The climate is continental. 
Seventy-five per cent, of the people are farmers, but primitive 
methods still prevail. The soil is very fertile, and all products of 
the temperate zone, and even rice, are raised. The chief crops are 
maize (the staple food), wheat, barley, oats, rye, tobacco and wine, 
all produced in excess of the demand. The excess of the crop goes 
to the congested parts of w^estern Europe. More maize is raised 
than in any other country of Europe. Domestic animals are bred 
in large numbers. The mineral wealth is great, but only petroleum 
and salt are worked extensively on the east of the Carpathians; 
the larger part of the newly acquired region on the Hungarian 
side abounds in minerals. The oil wells are among the most 
important in Europe, and petroleum and its products are much 
used as power fuel in transportation and manufactures. Flour 
mills, distilleries and tobacco works are the chief manufactories. 
Foreign capitalists own all important manufacturing enterprises, 
so that the Rumanians derive little profit from them. Races, 
Rumanians, Jews, Magyars, Slavs, Germans, Austrians, Arme- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 261 

nians. Religions, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant, 
Hebrew and Muhammadan. Grain forms three-fourths of the 
exports, and imports are mainly textiles and iron goods. Exports 
from old Rumania (1913), $134,141,060; imports, $118,002,- 
520. 

Russia. — Nominally a republic, but much divided and witliout 
responsible government. Capital of the Soviet government, Mos- 
cow. In 1914, the Russian Empire was constituted as follows : — 
latitude of northernmost European mainland 70°; of European 
islands 77° 6'; of northernmost mainland in Siberia 78°; latitude 
of southernmost European Russia 39° no^th, of Asiatic Russia 
35°. Longitude, European Russia, 17° 30-65° east; of Asiatic 
Russia 48° 20' east-170° west. Area, Europe, 2,122,990; Asia, 
6,294,119; total, including 347,468 square miles of inland seas, 
8,764,586, or one-seventh of the land area of the earth. Popula- 
tion, Europe, 153,041,100 (1915); Asia, 29,141,500. Since disin- 
tegration began in 1917, the following fragments of Russia have 
declared themselves to be independent or semi-independent states. 
Certain few are recognized by the Peace Conference as sovereign 
states; the status of the remainder is quite unknown; Finland, 
Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, Courland, Livonia (the last two in 
part constituting Latvia as now recognized), Esthonia, Bessarabia, 
Siberia, Caucasus, Don Republic, White Russian Republic, Repub- 
lic of Turkestan, Kazan Republic, Republic of Georgia, Tauride 
Republic, Yakutsk Republic. 

The Peace Commission has recognized Finland, Esthonia, 
Latvia, Lithuania and Poland as separate and independent states; 
Bessarabia has been attached to Rumania. Some of the other 
states mentioned above are certain to be recognized, the remainder 
will constitute a revised Russia. An estimate of the losses occa- 
sioned by the partition as recognized to date is — area, 298,500 
square miles; population, 30,282,800; or 10 per cent, of the area 
of European Russia, and 20 per cent, of the population. More- 
over, the loss includes almost all the industrial population, and 
much of the mineral wealth. While the average density of popu- 
lation for European Russia is below 75 per square mile, Poland 
has 280, Bessarabia (agricultural) 157, Vilna 129, and Grodno 
141. Other provinces of which only parts have been subtracted, 
run as high as 254 inhabitants per square mile. 



262 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

It is convenient to consider Russia under its two main divi- 
sions — European and Asiatic. 

European Russia is a vast plain interrupted by the Ural range 
in the east; tundras form the northern plain. The great con- 
tinental forest belt crosses the country. In the south is the famous 
"black earth" region, with its great grain fields. Further 
south are the steppes, divided by the River Don into a well- 
watered western half, with countless flocks and herds, and an 
eastern half of a semi-desert nature. The rivers furnish many 
thousands of miles of navigation. Their value is impaired by the 
fact that they are frozen from three to seven months in the year. 
The Volga system has 10,000 miles of navigation; canals connect 
the rivers and the Caspian and Black Seas with the Baltic. There 
lare many lakes in the northwest, chief among them Ladoga, the 
largest lake in Europe, half of which belongs to Finland. Russia 
has every variety of climate found in the temperate zone; polar 
bears live in the north and lemons ripen in the south. The rain- 
fall is less than in western Europe. 

Three-fourths of the people live by farming, but in the greater 
part of the country the crop yield could be more than doubled 
by more advanced methods. Russia has surpassed all other 
European states in the production of wheat, rye, flax and hemp; 
growing two-thirds of the oats, half the rye, and four-fifths of the 
flax fiber of the continent. The wealth in timber is enormous ; and 
in spite of poor forestry and wretched roads, timber exports have 
been very large. Stock farming is a great source of wealth; espe- 
cially in most developed in the western regions, but flourishing 
also on the broad steppes of the southwest, where the animals 
live all the year in the open air. The fisheries are important. 
Russia is one of the most favored countries in its mineral wealth. 
Gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc and salt are the prin- 
cipal minerals worked. Practically all the world's supply of 
platinum comes from the mines of the Ural Mountains. The coal 
fields are extensive, but the annual yield is sometimes negligble. 
Manufacturing has been characteristic largely of the western 
areas, now lost to Russia ; and it is difficult to forecast the immedi- 
ate industrial future of the country aside from agriculture. 

Caucasia and Trans-Caucasia (the former geographically and 
both administratively, in Europe) are mostly mountainous, save 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 263 

for wide steppes north of the Caucasus range and fertile valleys 
and a part of the Armenian table-land in the south. The climate 
south of the mountains is cooler than north of them. Caucasia 
is rich in timber and farm products, especially the vine, but 
domestic animals are more important than agriculture. The min- 
eral wealth is great. Petroleum is the most valuable variety. The 
wells near Baku supply Russia and a good part of Asia with oil, 
which also is sold in western Europe. Native manufactures barely 
meet home demands, but Tiflis and Erivan are distinguished for 
carpets, embroideries and weapons. 

The River Yenisei divides Siberia into a western half, more or 
less plain, and an eastern and more mountainous half. Siberia 
has long, hard winters and short, hot summers. The Obi, Irtysh, 
Yenisei, Lena and Amur rivers are important means of transpor- 
tation, and many vessels ply on Lake Baikal. The western half 
of Siberia is more fertile and thickly populated, and is chiefly 
devoted to agriculture. Cereals, potatoes, onions and melons 
thrive in southwestern Siberia. The same region contains millions 
of sheep and cattle. The mineral wealth is considerably devel- 
oped and widely distributed; gold, silver and graphite being most 
worked. The great coal field in central Siberia and extensive 
deposits of iron, lead and copper are still almost untouched. 
Manufacturing is chiefly confined to tanning, brick-making and ore 
smelting. The trans-Siberian railway and the rivers supply exten- 
sive transportation facilities. All the principal towns are con- 
nected by post routes. The chief commercial centers are Tomsk, 
Irkutsk, Yakutsk and Kiakhta. 

Russian Central Asia includes the Kirghiz steppes and Turk- 
estan, the latter being economically more important. The com- 
mercial center of Turkestan is the flourishing city of Tashkent. 
Cotton is the leading export, and the Russian government in the 
past has endeavored to develop its cultivation. Over 800,000,000 
pounds of clean fiber formerly were sent each year to Russian 
mills. Russian Central Asia has exterior trade relations only 
with Russia, Siberia and Persia; Indian and Afghan merchants 
also bringing some British commodities into the markets. The 
trans-Caspian and the Orenburg railroads are capable of stimulat- 
ing the economic growth of these possessions greatly. 

Russian Possessions. — Bokhara is a Russian vassal state 



264 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

north of Afghanistan. Latitude 41° 30-36° 40' north, longitude 
61° 40-73° east; area, about 83,000 square miles; population, 
about 1,250,000; capital, Bokhara, about 75,000; other cities— 
Karshi, 25,000; Heissar, 10,000; no official census. 

Bokhara was founded in the fifteenth century. A holy war 
against Russia about the end of the eighteenth century ended in 
its absorption by the Russian Empire. It is autonomous and 
practically independent. Grain, fruit, cattle, silk and tobacco are 
produced for home consumption. Silk is exported to India. The 
beautiful rugs and carpets of Bokhara are sold all over the world. 
Tea, shawls, dyestuffs and drugs are imported from India. The 
Russian Trans-Caspian Railway passes through Bokhara. There 
is steam navigation on the Oxus. Statistics of trade are not avail- 
able. The native people are of Semitic origin; the religion is that 
of Islam. 

Khiva is a vassal state in central Asia. Latitude 43° 40-40° 
north, longitude 57°-62°20' east; area, 24,000 square miles; popu- 
lation, estimated, 646,000, chiefly nomads; chief towns — Khiva 
(4,000-5,000), New Urgenj (3,000) ; chief products, cotton and silk. 

Sahara: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

St. Barthelemy Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 

St. Brandon (Cargados) Island: — see Mauritius, p. 235. 

St. Helena Island: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. 

St. Kitts-Nevis: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

St. Lucia: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

St. Martin Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. 

St. Matthew Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. 

St. Paul Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

St. Pierre Island: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. 

St. Thomas' {St. Thome) Island: — see Portuguese Possessions, 
p. 258. 

St. Vincent : — ^see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Sakhalin Island: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 

Salvador. — The smallest American republic, except Panama. 
Latitude 14° 30-13° 15' north, longitude 90°-87° west; area, 13,176 
square miles; population (1916), estimated, 1,271,336, of whom 
265,000 are unmixed white blood; capital, San Salvador, 65,148; 
other cities—Santa Ana, 58,820; San Miguel, 29,374; Neuva San 
Salvador, 22,423; San Vicente, 25,863; Sonsonate, 14,752. The 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 265 

constitution was proclaimed in 1824. Salvador became independ- 
ent of the Central American Federation in 1839. It is the most 
densely peopled Central American state. It extends along the 
Pacific coast with a sea frontage of 170 miles. The state is noted 
for its coffee, of which it has the largest export, except Guatemala. 
There are hundreds of sugar plantations. Livestock does not fill 
the demand for domestic animals, and mining is not yet impor- 
tant. Most of the exports are shipped through La Libertad and 
Acajutla. Great Britain, France and United States have most of 
the trade. Races, Spanish-American, Indians and mixed bloods. 
Exports (1917), $10,589,000; imports $2,719,000. 

Samoan Islands. — A group of fourteen islands in the South 
Pacific. Latitude 13°-15° south, longitude 172° 25-168° west; 
distant 4,200 miles southwest of San Francisco ; area, about 1,075 
square miles; population, estimated, 35,000; population of Savaii, 
the largest island, estimated, 12,800; of Upolu, estimated, 17,000; 
chief ports, Apia, on Upolu ; Paga Paga, on Tutuila. The islands 
are fertile and highly productive. There are extensive rubber 
plantations. Tutuila is a possession of the United States; in 1914 
the British occupied the other islands which had been a German 
possession. They are now attached to Australia for administra- 
tion. Copra is the chief export. 

Sandwich Islands: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 

San Marino. — An independent state and republic within Italian 
territory. Latitude 43° 55' north, longitude 12° 25' east; area, 38 
square miles; population (1916), 11,648. San Marino was founded, 
according to tradition, during the period of the Roman persecution 
of Christians. It has existed certainly since the fourth century. 
It is the smallest republic in the world. The city stands on the 
summit of Monte Titiano, about twenty miles from the Adriatic. 
The republic, however, is not democratic, as the citizens have no 
vote. The supreme power is vested in a council of 60 members, 
the title of Councilor being hereditary in the family. A treaty of 
friendship, revised in 1914, is in force with Italy. Wine, cattle 
products, and building stone are exported. 

Santa Cruz Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. 

Santo Domingo. — Negro republic occupying the east end of 
Santo Domingo or Haiti; area, estimated, 18,045 square miles; 
population, estimated (1913), 708,000; capital, Santo Domingo, 



266 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

founded 1497 by Bartolomeo Colombo, brother of the discoverer, 
population, 22,000; other cities — Santiago (1917), 14,744; Puerto 
Plata, the chief port, 10,000. The present republic was founded 
in 1844. The country is mountainous and inland communications 
are poor. The chief exports are sugar, tobacco, and cacao, 80 per 
cent, of which goes to the United States. Race, Spanish-speaking 
Negroes. Exports (1916), $21,851,390; imports, $11,664,500. 

Sarawak: — see British Borneo, p. 159. 

Savage Islands: — see Cook Islands, p. 184. 

Savaii: — see German Samoa, p. 206. 

Senegal: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Serh-Croat and Slovene State: — see Jugo-Slavia, p. 230. 

Serbia: — see Jugo-Slavia, p. 230. 

Seychelles Islands :^see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. 

Shantung: — see Kiauchau, p. 231. 

Siam. — A monarchy of Indo-China. Latitude 20°30'-4° north, 
longitude 97° 30-106° east; area, about 195,000 square miles, in- 
cluding 45,000 square miles of the Malay Peninsula; population 
(1916), estimated, 8,820,000; capital, Bangkok, estimated, 630,000. 
The surface consists of fertile rolling plains ; the northwestern part 
is mountainous. The climate is warm and moist. The larger part 
of the people live in the wonderfully fertile valley of the Menam, 
upon whose rise every year the quantity of the rice crop depends. 
Thus the river bears much the same relation to Siam that the Nile 
does to Egypt. Siam is one of the great rice-producing countries, 
the exports being surpassed only by those of Burma and Cochin- 
China. The forests of the mountain regions contain teak and 
other timbers. Teak is floated down the Menam to Bangkok, this 
timber and rice are the two great exports. Tin, rubies, and sap- 
phires are among the mineral products. Most of the commerce is 
in the hands of Chinese merchants. Bangkok has steamship con- 
nection with Europe; but the larger vessels cannot cross the bar 
at the mouth of the Menam, and much freight therefore is lightered 
between the ships and the docks about twenty-five miles distant. 
Considerable machinery is being introduced and the country is 
increasing in prosperity. Races, mainly Indo-Chinese and Malays. 
Religion, chiefly Buddhist. Trade especially with United King- 
dom, Singapore and Hong Kong. Exports (1916-17), $46,724,530; 
imports, $33,756,370. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 267 

Siberia: — see Russia, p. 261. 

Sierra Leone and Protectorate: — see British West Africa, p. 
173. 

Sikkim: — see India, p. 219. 

Singapore: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

Sin-Kiang: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. 

Sir Charles Hardy Islands: — see Nissan Islands, p. 247. 

Society Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. 

Sokotra Island: — see Aden, p. 143. 

Solomon Islands {German New Guinea) : — see Australia, Man- 
datories of, p. 153. 

South America.— Latitude 12° 30' north-56° 20' south; longi- 
tude 78°30'-30°40' west; area, with islands, 7,681,420 square 
miles ; length, 4,592 miles ; extreme breadth, 3,230 miles ; popula- 
tion, between 45,000,000 and 50,000,000. Most of the land is south 
of the equator. The shape of the continent is that of a double 
triangle, tapering bluntly at the north and gradually at the south, 
with the larger part of the continent in the equatorial and sub- 
equatorial regions. This results in a great preponderance of 
tropical climate, from which only altitude saves some portions. 
The continent exhibits extremes of climate, from arid and humid 
tropical to sub-arctic, which have had a marked effect upon natu- 
ral resources and human development. Parts can never be re- 
deemed, either from jungle or from sand and rock waste. Other 
parts are of great productiveness, and under the hand of man have 
already become the source of great quantities of foodstuffs sorely 
needed by nations so advanced in development as to be deficient 
in these commodities. None of the South American countries have 
developed so far as those of Europe or of North America; but 
some are farther advanced than any of Africa, or of Asia outside 
of Japan; and they are capable of traveling the same economic 
path followed by the United States or the more progressive coun- 
tries of Europe. In many respects the topography of the continent 
is broadly similar to that of the United States. It is characterized 
by several rivers navigable for great lengths, extending possible 
marine transportation into the center of the land. 

South Georgia Island: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 

South Island: — see New Zealand, p. 244. 

South Orkney Islands: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 

South Polar Region: — see Antarctica, p. 147. 



268 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

South Shetland Islands: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 

Spain. — A limited monarchy. Latitude 43 ° 45-36 ° north, longi- 
tude 10° 30' west-4° 30' east; area, excluding Balearic and Canary- 
Islands, 190,050 square miles; population (1917), 20,747,893; capi- 
tal, Madrid (1918), 648,760; chief ports, Santander (Bay of 
Biscay), 72,373; Cadiz (Atlantic), 66,000; Barcelona (Mediter- 
ranean), 621,419; other cities— Valencia, 245,871; Sevilla, 164,322; 
Malaga, 140,975. Spain was a Roman colony in 200 B.C., a Visi- 
gothic kingdom in 531 A.D., and a Muhammadan monarchy in 758 
A.D, The better-known history of Spain begins with the voyage 
of Columbus in search of the Indies during the reign of Ferdinand 
and Isabella. The Spanish peninsula is a high mountainous 
plateau. In the center are the table-lands of Old Castillo and New 
Castille, dry, unfertile, and better suited for cattle than for tillage. 
The great lowland plains, the Aragonese in the north, and the 
Andalusian in the south, are among the most fertile lands of 
Europe. The rivers are deficient most of the year, and are of little 
value for shipping. The irrigation canals built centuries ago were 
permitted to fall into ruin. The government is now repairing the 
canals and building new ones to serve both irrigation and navi- 
gation. The climatic conditions of South Europe are found in 
the coast districts and in Andulasia. Owing to its high elevation, 
the plateaus suffer extremes of temperature. Even with the sea 
on three sides, Spain is deficient in rainfall. 

Most of the people are farmers. Apples, pears and southern 
fruits thrive ; in good years the northern provinces export cereals 
and the southern provinces maize and rice. Olive oil is an im- 
portant product, and the vine is the most important branch of 
Spanish husbandry. The warm climate of the south produces the 
famous wines of Malaga, Alicante and Xeres, of which sherry is 
the best known. The finest pastures are near the Atlantic, in the 
northwest, but merino sheep graze on the central table-land. 
Corks are manufactured in large quantity. Spain is very rich in 
coal, iron, copper, lead and quick-silver, but most of the mining is 
done by foreign capitalists and the ore is exported. Only a few 
hundred tons of iron are produced in Spanish foundries. Barce- 
lona and its vicinity is the home of the greater part of Spanish 
manufactures. The cotton and metal industries are most promi- 
nent there, and cotton, flour, corks and olive oil are the leading 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 269 

manufactures. The trade of Spain consists mainly in the export 
of wines, raisins, grain, cotton, and ores, and the import of most 
of the manufactures consumed. Valencia and Alicante are im- 
portant ports. Race, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catholic. 
Exports (1917), $260,069,000; imports, $265,678,000. 

The Canary Islands are a group of volcanic peaks belonging to 
Spain, and administratively a province of it; situated about 200 
miles off the coast of Africa. Latitude 29° 30'-27° 30' north, longi- 
tude 18°-13° 30' west; area, 2,807 square miles; population (1917), 
497,995. The islands were commercialized by Phoenician mer- 
chants as early as 40 B.C. They became a Spanish possession in 
1495: Bananas, other tropical fruits, and wine are the chief 
products. 

The Balearic Islands are a group in the Mediterranean, south 
of Barcelona and east of Valencia. Latitude 40°-38°30' north, 
longitude 1°20'— 4°30' east; area, 1,935 square miles; population 
(1917), 332,756. Fruit, grain and wine are produced, and fish and 
lobsters sent to Barcelona. Imports, chiefly from Spain, are 
cotton, leather, sugar, oil, coal, and timber. First civilized occu- 
pants were the Carthaginians ; afterwards a Roman holding, pass- 
ing to the Moors about 800 A.D. For a time they formed a sepa- 
rate kingdom, but w^ere conquered by Spain in 1232. For short 
periods they have been British. 

Spanisli Guinea: — see Spanish Possessions, p. 269. 

Spanish Possessions. — Besides wielding an influence in Morocco, 
Spain possesses several areas in Africa, aggregating 88,814 
square miles, and having an estimated population of 235,844. 

Sj)anish Guinea (Muni River Settlements). Latitude 2°-l° 
north, longitude 9°30'-ll°30' east; area, 12,000 square miles; 
population, estimated, 200,000; capital, Santa Isabel, on the Island 
of Fernando Po (1,185 square miles). In the Gulf of Guinea are 
also the Islands of Annobon, 6.5 square miles; Little Elobey, 35 
acres; Great Elobey, .75 square miles, and Corisco, 5.5 square 
miles. On the mainland is Rio Muni, 9,800 square miles, of which 
Bata is the chief center. The mainland region is dense forest; 
game abounds. There are some plantations, but trade is mainly 
in natural products — rubber, palm-oil and kernels, and timber. 
Fernando Po, an exceedingly fertile island, lies north of the other 
Spanish territory, in latitude 3° 30' north, longitude 9° east. 



270 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Rio de Oro and Adrar stretches south along the Sahara coast 
from Morocco. Latitude 28° 40-21° north, longitude 17° 30'- 
8° 30' west; area, 73,000 square miles; population, 12,000. It is 
administered by the Canary Islands; capital. Villa Cisneros. A 
desert country, with few oases. Inhabitants mainly nomads. 
Spain began to take an interest in the region in the fifteenth cen- 
tury, as a protection for the Canary Islands to the west. Esparto 
grass and manzanilla are grown where possible; the natives rear 
cattle, but horses do not thrive. Fishing, especially for cod, is 
especially good, and is controlled by the French and Spaniards 
from the Canary Islands. 

Spice Islands: — see Molucca Archipelago, p. 238. 

Spitzbergen. — An Arctic archipelago. Latitude 80° 50'-76° 26' 
north, longitude 10° 20'-32° 40' east, comprising five major islands 
and many smaller ones. The chief island. West Spitzbergen, has 
an area of 15,000 square miles. The lands are mountainous and 
heavily glaciated. On account of the climate, no permanent in- 
habitants have occupied the islands, but temporary colonies from 
several nations have successively attempted establishment there. 
It must be said, however, that the climate is less severe than that 
of Greenland in the same latitude, and the continuous daylight 
for months at a time would aid in the development of its impor- 
tant minerals. Besides lesser varieties, coal, limestone and iron 
ore in considerable quantities occur, and form the basis for a pos- 
sible steel industry of no mean order. This feature engaged the 
attention of England during the World War, but at that time no 
active steps were taken. The strategic advantages of the group 
were seen as well, and British influence in the islands is supplant- 
ing that of Norway, which has been dominant of late. 

Starhuck Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Straits Settlements: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

Sulphur Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 

Sumatra: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Sunda Islands: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Sunday Island: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. 

Surinam: — see Dutch West Indies, p. 189. 

Sweden. — The eastern kingdom of the Scandinavian Penin- 
sula. Latitude 69°-55° 45' north, longitude 11° ]5'-24° east; area, 
173,035 square miles; population (1917), 5,757,566; capital. Stock- 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 271 

holm (1917), 408,792; other cities— Goteborg, 191,535; Malmo, 
111,823; Norrkoping, 55,623. Sweden is mentioned in the Ger- 
mania of Tacitus, 99 A.D. It was an establislied kingdom in the 
time of Harold Fairhair in the tenth century. A union of Sweden 
and Norway occurred in 1319. Under Charles IX in 1600 it be- 
came a recognized monarchy. The final dissolution of the union 
with Norway occurred in 1905. Sweden is mountainous in the 
west. The river valleys are on the eastern slope ; the chief lowland 
plain is in the south. These determine the localities of dense 
population, and the regions of agriculture. The climate is colder 
than that of Norway; although much of the land is unproductive, 
half of the people are farmers. Sweden produces more cereals 
than Norway, but it imports rye and wheat. Livestock are exten- 
sively raised in the mountain regions. The government has done 
much for the intelligent development of dairy farming and the 
general improvement of agriculture. The fisheries are of con 
siderable importance, but they do not supply the home consump- 
tion. The timber trade, on the other hand, is of great value, and 
the shipments, largely to England and France, are the chief 
exports. Sweden is poorly supplied with coal, but has large de- 
posits of iron ore in the central and northern parts. Much of the 
ore is carried by rail to Lulea, a port on the Gulf of Bothnia and 
thence shipped to England; more is carried to Narvik in Norway 
for shipment. For want of available coal, Sweden is largely de- 
pendent on other countries for textile and other domestic materials. 
The best-developed manufactures are the iron and wood industries ; 
Swedish matches are everywhere famous. Linen manufactures 
meet the domestic demand, but the woolen and cotton factories 
supply only a part of the home need. The manufactories are 
chiefly workshops, iron and steel plants, and flour and grain mills. 
Stockholm and Goteborg are the chief ports, and there is a large 
coastal trade with adequate connections with foreign countries. 
Sw^eden has a fine canal system, and railroads connect the chief 
towns with one another and with Norway. Race, Scandinavian. 
Religion, Protestant, Catholic, and Hebrew. Trade is mainly with 
Great Britain, Germany and Russia. The leading imports are 
minerals, raw textiles, corn and flour; exports, timber, livestock 
and products, wood pulp and products, metal goods and ores and 
metals. Exports (1917), $422,327,000; imports, $316,518,500. 



272 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Switzerland. — A republic in the heart of the Alps. Latitude, 
47° 50-45° north, longitude 6°-10°15' east; area, 15,976 square 
miles ; population (1916), 3,880,500; capital, Berne (1918), 105,000; 
other cities— Zurich, 213,000; Basel, 137,000; Geneva, 139,500; 
Lausanne, 71,400. Switzerland is approximately the Helvetia of 
Caesar's time. The league of the Swiss people began practically in 
1291, and became independent of the Holy Roman Empire in 1648. 
The constitution now in force was adopted in 1874. Three-fourths 
of Switzerland is covered with mountains, and most of the inhabi- 
tants live on an undulating plain between the Jura Mountains in 
the north, and the Alps in the south. Several passes afford wagon 
roads over the mountains to Austria and Italy. Five tunnels, the 
Arlberg to Autria, and the St. Gotthard, Simplon, Mont Cenis, and 
Lotschberg to Italy, give uninterrupted connections across Swit- 
zerland with the regions north and south. The mountain streams 
are useless for navigation, but they give abundant power for indus- 
trial purposes. The lakes furnish local navigation. The scenery, 
the great resource of Switzerland, attracts over one million for- 
eigners a year. The climate of the valleys is temperate and the 
rainfall, chiefly in the form of snow, is heavy. 

The state as a whole does not produce enough food for the 
home demand. The importation of grain, meat, and potatoes is 
large. The vine is extensively cultivated, but the wine product 
does not meet the demand. The meadow and mountain pastures 
have developed stock farming to a considerable extent; and the 
dairy products are famous, three-fifths of the cheese being ex- 
ported to all parts of the world. Minerals are of little importance, 
and as there is no coal, the manufacturing industries would be at 
a great disadvantage if it were not for the water power. The 
abundance of water power, used for generating electricity, to- 
gether with the intelligence of the working classes, has made Swit- 
zerland one of the chief manufacturing countries of the world. 

The manufactures include the production of cottons, silk, 
watches, jewelry, machinery, wooden and straw goods and other 
wares. The products are chiefly those that are distinguished for 
high quality of workmanship, and Swiss manufactures find markets 
among all the leading nations. Although Switzerland is far from 
the sea, the railroads to northern and southern ports serve her 
commercial relations. Races, German, French, and Italian. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 273 

Religion, Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Hebrew. Trade is 
largely with United States, Great Britain, Austria, Germany, and 
France. Exports (1916), $489,402,000; imports, $475,600,000. 

Syria. — A name applied from very ancient times to the coun- 
try bordered by Asia Minor and the Taurus Mountains on the 
north, northern Mesopotamia and the central Arabian desert on 
the east, Hedjaz on the south, and the Levantine Gulf of the 
Mediterranean Sea on the west. Latitude 37°-31° north, longi- 
tude 34° 15-41° 30' east; area (Turkish villayet), 114,530 square 
miles; population, estimated, 3,675,100. Its southwestern coastal 
section includes Palestine. Parts have been virtually independent 
for some time, control by Turkey being slight. All the country 
is likely to be separated from Turkey, Syria proper and possibly 
Palestine separately, forming one or two mandatories under the 
Allied and Associated Powers. The climate is varied, tending 
in most parts to semi-aridity, and the eastern portion forms 
the Syrian desert. The country will not, apparently, support 
a dense population, but may well become an agricultural center 
of importance under modern guidance. Farming is most 
primitive. Alexandretta is the northern port, Beirut, 150,000, is 
the southern; Latakia, from which comes a distinctive Turkish 
tobacco, is another. Damascus, 250,000, and Aleppo, 250,000, are 
the chief inland cities. Wheat, silk cocoons, wool, hides, sponges, 
eggs and fruits are exported. Mineral resources are small. Coal 
and water-power are scarce or lacking, greatly impeding attempts 
to introduce manufacturing. Railway communication is poor, but 
there are several strategic lines ; and Aleppo, on the Bagdad rail- 
way, is an important center. Roads and trails are poor. 

Tahiti: — see Society Islands, p. 267. 

Tasmania: — see Australia, p. 152. 

Taui Island: — see Admiralty Islands, p. 143. 

Tibet: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. 

Tiensin, Italian Concession: — see Italian Possessions, p. 222. 

Timor Archipelago: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 

Timor Island: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. 

Tobago Island: — see Trinidad and Tobago, p. 274. 

Togoland: — see France, Mandatories of; and Great Britain, 
Mandatories of, pp. 196 and 210. 

Tokelau Islands: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 



274 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Tonga Islands: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Tanking: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. 

Transvaal: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. 

Trinidad and Tobago: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Tripoli and Cyrenaica {Libia Italiana) : — see Italian Posses- 
sions, p. 222. 

Tristan da Cunha Islands: — see British Possessions; Africa, 
p. 162. 

Trois Freres (Eagle) Islands: — see Mauritius, p. 235. 

Tubuai Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. 

Tunisia: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Turkey. — A despotic monarchy, for many centuries holding 
territory in southeastern Europe, Asia Minor and adjacent parts 
of Asia, and in northern Africa. Area (1914), Europe, 10,882 
square miles; Asia Minor, 199,272; Armenia and Kurdistan, 
71,900; Mesopotamia, 142,250; Syria, 114,530; Arabia, 170,300; 
making a total of 710,224 square miles. Much of this was held, 
however, most insecurely, and was virtually independent. The 
population in 1915 was estimated at 21,273,900, of whom 1,891,000 
were in Europe. 

Of all this territory, Turkey is expected to lose the greater 
part. It is probable that all of European Turkey will be divided 
between Greec and the new state of Constantinople; the latter to 
have in addition the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus and part of 
that along the Sea of Marmora. Greece has claim also to a large 
district in western Asia Minor, of which Smyrna is the focus. 
Armenia has declared herself separate. Hejaz is now a recog- 
nized nation, and the remainder of Arabia is unlikely to remain 
under Turkish rule. Mesopotamia, once the garden of the world 
and ruined by Turkish misrule, is expected to be a mandatory 
under one of the Allied and Associated Powers. Syria, with 
Palestine, cannot remain Turkish. Indeed, it seems probable that 
Turkey will soon embrace little more than a part of Anatolia, in 
Asia Minor. 

Turk's Island: — ^see Jamaica, p. 225. 

Tutuila: — see American Samoa, p. 147. 

Uganda Protectorate: — see British East Africa, p. 160. 

Ukrainia. — The Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed 
November, 1917, separating from Russia and forming one member 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 275 

of the short-lived Russian Federal Republic. As intended, it was 
to embrace those parts of southeastern Russia called Little Russia, 
Southwest Territory and New Russia exclusive of the territory 
of the Don Cossacks. The state is not recognized by the Allied 
and Associated Powers as yet. The capital is Kiev (610,000 in 
1913). The region is eminently agricultural, a large part being 
within the ''black soil" portion of the great Russian plain. Wheat 
has been a large export commodity. Coal and iron in consider- 
able quantity are known, and there are several iron and steel 
works. 

Union Islands: — see Tokelau Islands, p. 273. 

Union of South Africa. — In 1910, the Union was constituted of 
the self-governing colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the 
Transvaal, and Orange Free State. They are governed on the 
whole as a dominion, a Governor General representing the King. 
The total included area is 473,075 square miles; population (1911), 
1,276,242 whites, 4,697,152 blacks, a total of 5,973,394. The occu- 
pations are largely agricultural and industrial, and there is a pre- 
ponderance of dependents over those engaged in any classified 
occupation. The natural resources, mineral and organic, are very 
great, and the crude industries are large in scale. Manufacturing 
has been greatly stimulated by the war. The total exports for 
1917 were $143,472,500; imports, $182,.381,190. 

Cape of Good Hope (Cape Colony).— Latitude 28°-34°30' 
south, longitude 16°30'-28° east; area of the colony proper, 206,- 
860 square miles; additional territory brings the total to 276,995 
square miles; population (1911), 1,554,000 (1,982,588 total); capi- 
tal. Cape Town (greater), 146,000; other cities — Kimberley, esti- 
mated, 30,000; Port Elizabeth, estimated, 31,000; East London, 
21,000. Founded by the Dutch in 1652. The British took formal 
possession in 1814. The original area has been extended by the 
annexation of West Pondoland, Bechuanaland, and other small 
additions. A large part of the country comprises semi-arid graz- 
ing plains, which have nutritious grasses that support millions of 
sheep and cattle and many ostriches. Stretching across the south- 
ern edge of the province is a zone of excellent lands that produce 
wheat, maize and other crops of the temperate zone. Thousands 
of acres are in vines and orchard, the colony being a large pro- 
ducer of wine and fruits. Large quantities of these are sent in cold 



276 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

storage to Europe as early as February and March. Four-fifths of 
Cape Colony needs artificial irrigation, and projects for this pur- 
pose are developing. The autumn rains provide much water. 
Wool-growing is the largest grazing industry, and ostrich feathers 
from domesticated birds are derived chiefly from this region. The 
Angora goat yields large quantities of mohair. The diamond 
mines at Kimberley practically monopolize the world's trade. The 
exports, wool, mohair, hides, diamonds, ostrich feathers, and 
fruits, are sent to British countries. The imports are cotton goods, 
steel products and machinery. The ports of Cape Town, East 
London and Port Elizabeth are connected with stations on the 
Zambezi River about 1,700 miles distant. The trunk line is a part 
of the "Cape to Cairo" railway now partly completed. The white 
population are mainly English-speaking and Dutch-speaking; they 
constitute about one-third of the whole. The natives belong to the 
Black Race. Religion, Protestant. 

Natal. — A maritime province on the Indian Ocean. Latitude 
26° 30-31° south, longitude 29°-33° east; area, including Zulu- 
land (10,424 square miles), 35,290 square miles; population (1911), 
1,194,043; capital, Pietermaritzburg, commonly called Maritzburg, 
30,555; seaport, Durban, commonly called Port Natal, 69,187; other 
cities — Ladysmith, Newcastle, and Dundee — no official figures of 
population. In his search for an all-water route to India, Vasco 
da Gama sighted the bluff at the entrance of Durban harbor, in 
1497. In the latter part of the seventeenth century English ships 
occasionally called at Port Natal for ivory. Boer prospectors 
established trading posts in various parts of the province early in 
the nineteenth century. It was annexed to Cape Colony in 1844. 

Natal is essentially an agricultural province. Maize and kaffir 
corn are grown wherever the land is arable; the cattle and sheep 
ranges are extensive ; tea, coffee, and cotton are grown in the low- 
lands. The mineral wealth is great, including copper, silver, lead, 
and gold. There are valuable coal measures and these already 
furnish most of the local supply. Railways connect Durban and 
Maritzburg with practically all the commercial centers of South 
Africa. Ladysmith is the chief center of convergence. Most of 
the trade is carried on with the United Kingdom. Maize, wool, 
hides and other cattle products are the chief exports. 

Transvaal Province. — A state now included in the Union of 



DESCEIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 277 

South Africa. Latitude 22°-28° south, longitude 25°-32° east; 
area, 110,426 square miles; population (1911), 1,686,212, of whom 
one-third are Europeans ; capital, Pretoria, 29,618 ; mining center, 
Johannesburg, 237,104. The Transvaal was colonized by Boers, 
who left Cape Colony in 1836. On account of trouble with the 
natives the region was annexed to Great Britain in 1877. In 1881 
independence was given to the state. In 1900 the war between the 
Boers and the British ended with the formal annexation to Great 
Britain. The Transvaal is situated on the high interior plateau 
of South Africa, 4,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea. A widespread 
plain in the interior and smaller plains scattered through the coun- 
try give the state considerable agricultural land. The plateau is 
higher in the south than in the north, and the climate, temperate 
in the south and center, is tropical in the north. No rivers are 
available for navigation. The plains are the home of most of the 
Boers, who are among the most thrifty cattle-growers in the world. 
Maize, tobacco, and meat are grown for export. Truck and dairy 
farming in the mining regions is a profitable industry. Gold is the 
greatest mineral resource, and the mines are scattered through the 
eastern and southern parts of the colony. The Witwatersrand, on 
wliicli Johannesburg stands, is one of the most productive gold- 
producing regions in the world. Diamonds are mined near Pre- 
toria, and the diamond fields rank next to those of Kimberley. At 
least 5,000 square miles are underlain by coal, of an average thick- 
ness of six feet. Gold, diamonds, and tin ore are the chief exports. 
Eailroads extend from Johannesburg to the various South African 
ports. Races, Boers, British, native blacks and Chinese laborers. 
Orange Free State. — Latitude 26 ° 30-30 ° 45' south, longitude 
24° 30'-30° east; area 50,389 square miles ; population (1911), 528,- 
174; capital, Bloemfontein, 26,925, of whom about one-half are 
black. Originally peopled by Bantu tribes; settled by Boers, or 
farmers of Dutch descent about 1824; a provisional republic was 
established in 1836. It was formally annexed to Great Britain at 
the time of the Boer war, in 1900, under the name of Orange River 
Colony. As it stands on the high plateau of inner South Africa its 
climate is temperate and healthful. The state is best adapted for 
stock raising; wheat and other farm crops are grown in the south. 
Bloemfontein is a health resort, famous not only on account of its 
fine, water supply, derived from a spring, but also because of its 



278 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

pure air. A considerable part of its population consists of in- 
valids from Europe. Wool is the chief product and, with hides and 
other cattle products, forms the bulk of the exports. Some dia- 
monds are mined, but the mineral industries are little developed. 
Races, Boers, natives of Bantu stock and British. Religion, 
Protestant. 

Union of South Africa, Mandatory of. — Only one mandatory 
over ex-German colonies has been given to the Union by the Peace 
Conference. 

German Southwest Africa. Latitude 17°-29° south, longitude 
12°-25°30' east; area, 322,450 square miles; population, 94,386. 
A large part of the country is desert, some of it irrigable. Indus- 
tries are backward, but cotton, silk and tobacco engage many 
people. Stock raising is the chief occupation. Valuable minerals 
are known, but mining is slight. Exports (1912, the highest year), 
$9,763,335; imports, $8,124,720. 

United States of America. — A republic situated mainly in cen- 
tral North America, but with territories, dependencies, and naval 
stations in various parts of the world. Latitude of main body 
49°_24° north, longitude 66 °-125° west, although the extreme 
western island of Alaska is approximately longitude 170° east. 

The Aleutian Islands (Catherine Archipelago) extend about 
1,200 miles from Alaska toward Kamchatka. 



body 



Continental 
Alaska . . . 
rhili])pine Islands 

Porto Rico 

Hawaii 

Canal Zone 

Virgin Islands ... 
American Samoa 
Guam 



Capital 



Washington 

Juneau 

Manila 
San Juan 
Honolulu 

Charlotte Amalie 

Aguna 



Area 



3,026,789 

590,884 

120,000 

3,606 

6,449 

448 

240 

77 

210 



Population 



03,500,000 

66,400 

8,937,00 

1,118,012 

322,900 

61,300 

26,000 

7,300 

13,700 



* Estimated 1918 



The growth of area of the United States began practically at 
the close of the French and' Indian war by the treaty of Paris, in 
1763. The English colonies gained the territory between the 
Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The subse- 
quent gains are as follows : 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 279 

The Louisiana Purchase, west of the Mississippi River, 1805 

The Florida country, ceded by Spain, 1819 

Texas, annexed, 1845 

The Mexican War cession, 1848 

The Gadsden purchase, 1853 

The Oregon country, acquired by discovery, exploration, and 
treaties with Spain and Great Britain 

Alaska, purchased from Russia, 1867 

Hawaiian Islands, annexed, 1898 

Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, Guam and other islands, ac- 
quired by conquest, 1898 

Tutuila, acquired by conquest in 1898, treaty in 1900 

Canal Zone, acquired by treaty with Panama, 1903 

The principal physical regions of the United States are also 
industrial regions. The Atlantic Coastal Plain, New England 
Plateau and Appalachian Mountains include the most important 
centers of manufacture and commerce. This is due in part to 
contiguity to European markets, in part to good harbors, and in 
part to an abundance of power — water, hydroelectric, and fuel. 
The chief ports of this region are located at tidewater near the 
heads of river estuaries or other bays protected from ocean storms. 
The manufacturing centers are at places convenient to natural 
water power, hydroelectric power, or to cheap power fuel. The 
principal ports and their exports are: Portland, cattle products, 
grain; Boston, leather products, foodstuffs, cotton manufactures; 
the port of New York (including the New Jersey shores), the fore- 
most shipping port in the world, grain, flour, cotton, tobacco, pre- 
served foods; Philadelphia, coal and manufactures; Baltimore, 
coal, grain, fishing products; Norfolk and Richmond, cotton and 
tobacco; Charleston, cotton; Savannah, cotton and foodstuffs; 
Jacksonville, fruit and produce; Tampa, tobacco and cigars; 
Mobile, cotton, fruits, and produce; New Orleans, cotton and 
produce; Galveston, cotton. The coastal plain and cultivable land 
in the vicinity of these ports are characterized by garden truck and 
dairy farms. The larger cities in the interior of the eastern 
region — Pittsburg, Reading, Providence, Syracuse, Rochester, 
Lowell, Scranton, Fall River, Worcester, Bridgeport, New Haven, 
Newark, Trenton, and Wilmington — are mainly manufacturing 
centers, making machine-shop products, textiles, clothing, paper. 



280 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

oil products, refined metals, metal wares, machinery, chemicals, 
munitions, and patent food products. In the Appalachian region, 
where cheap fuel is at hand, the manufactures of steel for building 
purposes, wire, and sheet metal predominate. The eastern region 
supplies all the United States with its manufactures and a con- 
siderable part of the rest of the world in addition. 

In the great central plains, extending from the northern boun- 
dary to the Gulf of Mexico, agriculture is the chief industry. 
From the northern boundary to the Ohio River, and from the 
Appalachian Mountains to the arid plains west of the Missouri 
River, the production of wheat, corn, oats and grass is the impor- 
tant industry. The wheat supplies that part of the country east 
of the Rocky Mountains with flour, and includes a surplus which is 
sold mainly in western Europe. The corn crop for the greater part 
is converted into pork, which supplies not only the United States, 
but includes also shipments to western Europe and to tropical 
countries where fresh meat is not always to be obtained. The oat 
crop is consumed mainly where it is grown. A considerable part 
is used in the manufacture of oatmeal, the demand for which is 
increasing. The grass is converted into meat and dairy products, 
the home demand for which does not much exceed the supply. 

The chief market centers of this region are Chicago, Minne- 
apolis, St. Paul, Buffalo, Cleveland, Cincinnati, St. Louis, the 
Kansas Cities, Indianapolis, and Omaha. These cities are among 
the world's greatest food markets; Louisville is the principal 
tobacco market; and Duluth is one of the greatest ore markets. 
These cities are manufacturing centers as well, the manufactures 
being connected chiefly with farm machinery, automobiles, and 
food products. Indeed, manufacturing in the North Central States 
is competing actively with the east. 

The southern part of the great central plain produces cotton, 
sugar, rice, and tobacco for commercial purposes, and ordinary 
foodstutfs for home consumption. Quick transportation has ex- 
tended truck-farming for northern cities into this region, with the 
result that they now begin to receive spring vegetables in February 
instead of in May. The yearly cotton crop varies from one-half to 
three-fourths of the world's crop. A part of it is manufactured 
into cloth in the mills of southern cities ; a considerable part goes 
to the mills of the New England and Middle Atlantic States ; the 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 281 

rest is carried eastward as far as the Ural Mountains and west- 
ward into Japan and China. It is normally the chief money crop 
of the United States. Among the cities of this group of states are 
Atlanta, Nashville, Chattanooga, Memphis, Oklahoma, Dallas, 
Vicksburg — all engaged in the collection, manufacture, and 
marketing of the products of the region. 

The western highlands from the Rocky to the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains are the metal mining and grazing region of the United 
States. Because of its rugged surface not much of the land can be 
cultivated ; in the soutliern part, because of light rainfall, much of 
it is a desert. For these reasons its food-producing power is low 
and it is therefore sparsely peopled. The grazing region and the 
great cattle ranches are in the north. Denver, Butte, Helena, 
South Pueblo, and Great Falls are centers of mining interests and 
ore-reduction works; Cheyenne is the chief point of cattle trade; 
Salt Lake City is the market of an agricultural region. Irrigation 
projects have brought more than one million acres of the western 
highlands under cultivation. 

The Pacific Coast States are marked by mildness of climate. 
The seasons are two — rainy winters and dry summers. Practically 
every part has enough rain for an abundance of crops. The broad 
intermontane valleys produce wheat; the foot-hills yield apples, 
oranges, cherries, apricots, and lemons that pay for shipment to 
the cities of the Atlantic States. The ports of the Pacific coast 
are few in number, but the harbors of Puget Sound, San Francisco 
Bay, and San Diego Bay are big enough and deep enough to shelter 
the commerce carriers of the nation. Seattle, Portland, San Fran- 
cisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego are the chief ports. Much of 
their trade is with Japan, China, and Australia. 

The mineral resources of the United States as a whole surpass 
those of every other country. In the production of iron and 
copper, the United States stands at the head. -In the production of 
gold, silver, lead, zinc, and quick-silver, the yearly output many 
times has been first. In coal, petroleum, and other power fuels 
the United States is far in the lead. 

The railway transportation system is quicker and cheaper than 
that of any other country. Until the beginning of the World War, 
the cost of railway transportation was about three-quarters of a 
cent per ton-mile, a rate less than half that on European railways. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 283 

Practically all freight moves as fast freight. Trunk lines from 
every important city in the east connect with the various trans- 
continental lines that reach Pacific ports. In 1919 the railways had 
an aggregate length of more than 260,000 miles. The railway 
across the Isthmus of Panama is owned and operated by the fed- 
eral government; a railway from Resurrection Bay, Alaska, to 
Fairbanks is under construction by the federal government. Dur- 
ing the World War the federal government took over the opera- 
tion of practically all railways in the United States. . 

River and canal transportation in the United States is rela- 
tively undeveloped. The Mississippi and its tributaries afford not 
far from 12,000 miles of navigable water; other rivers aggregate a 
possible 8,000 miles in addition. Most of the canals have been 
abandoned. The Erie Canal, previous to its reconstruction into a 
barge canal, had lost much freight traffic; its future possibilities 
are great. The St. Mary's Falls Canal (Sault Ste. Marie or 
'* Soo "), connecting Lake Superior and Lake Huron, on the other 
hand, carries more freight than any other canal in the world. In 
the future both civil and commercial necessities will undoubtedly 
lead to the development of more extensive inland water trans- 
portation, which for slow freight can be made far cheaper than 
railway transportation. 

Railway transportation is being made more effective in many 
localities by the use of electricity, generated by water power or by 
coal of too low fuel power to be carried to consumers. Motor 
trucks have shown their value in carrying local freight over short 
lines. Their advantage is quick and direct delivery. Railway 
trunk lines rarely handle local freight quickly unless it can be 
carried in carload lots. The cost in stopping and starting a train 
is sometimes greater than the amount received for a consignment. 
Airplane routes are being carefully mapped throughout the 
country, but as yet only a few are in operation. 

The foreign business of the United States before the World 
War amounted to about two and one-half billion dollars yearly. 
The exports usually exceed the imports — that is, the balance of 
trade usually was in favor of the country. The government ex- 
penditures were about one billion dollars and these were met by 
import taxes on foreign goods. The prosecution of the war cost 
more than fifty billion dollars; the national debt which, July 1, 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 285 

1917, was less than three billion dollars, on July 1, 1918, was more 
than twelve billion dollars. 

In the twenty-five years preceding the World War the char- 
acter of the foreign business of the United States did not change 
much. The imports consisted mainly of fine textiles and manu- 
factured goods which, on account of the high cost of labor in the 
United States, could be made more cheaply abroad. Among food- 
stuffs, sugar, chocolate, bananas, lemons, and wines have been 
imported in large quantities. Among other imports were dyes, 
chemicals and toys. Since the war these, for the greater part, 
have been made in the United States. For the past half century 
wheat products, meats, raw cotton, cotton textiles, metals, and 
coal oil have been leading exports. In the future it is likely that 
the export of manufactures will increase because of new and wider 
markets, while the export of foodstuffs will decrease because of the 
increase of population. During the past quarter of a century the 
increase in population has been a little more on the average than 
one million per year. 

Of late, the exports and imports have nearly balanced; for 
instance, they were each about $6,150,000,000 in 1917. The year 

1918, however, shows a very heavy credit — exports, $5,928,285,641; 
imports, $2,946,059,403. 

United States; Outlying Territories. — Of the outlying regions 
that are a part of, or dependent upon, the United States, the fol- 
lowing are described separately: — Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, 
Philippine Islands. Other smaller areas are noted below. 

The American Virgin Islands lie about 50 miles east of Porto 
Rico. Latitude 48 ° 30-47 ° 45', longitude 65°-64°30' west. The 
islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John, originally Danish, 
were purchased by the United States in 1916. St. Thomas, 28 
square miles; St. Croix, 84 square miles; St. John, 20 square miles; 
total population, estimated, 23,000, chiefly Negroes. Sugar-cane, 
cotton, fruit and vegetables are the products. 

Panama Canal Zone; area, 448 square miles; population (1915), 
estimated, 65,000; capital, Panama, estimated, 40,000; Colon, esti- 
mated, 15,000. By virtue of a treaty with the Republic of Panama, 
a strip of land five miles in width on each side of the Panama 
Canal was granted in perpetuity to the United States in order to 
provide facilities for the construction of the canal. Over this 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 287 

strip, exclusive of the cities of Panama and Colon, the federal 
government has exclusive control for police, sanitary, judicial 
and commercial purposes. The sum of $10,000,000 was paid for 
the possession of the zone and by the terms of the treaty the 
United States pays a yearly rental of $250,000. The Pacific ter- 
minal of the canal is Port Ancon (Balboa) ; the Atlantic terminal 
is Cristobal. The World War undoubtedly prevented the growth 
in canal traffic that has been expected ; and the value of the water- 
way to world commerce must be judged by the history of the next 
few years. 

Guam is the largest and most populous island of the Mariana 
(Ladrone) Archipelago. Latitude 13° 2G' north, longitude 144° 43' 
east; area, about 225 square miles; civil population (1916), 13,916, 
of which only 219 were white ; seat of administration, Agafia ; port 
of entry, Piti. Guam is a naval base of the United States, which 
was acquired from Spain by the treaty of Paris, 1898. The highest 
land is only 1,274 feet above the sea. A mountain chain extends 
near the southern coast ; the rest of the island is mainly a plateau 
heavily forested with cocoanut groves, maize, taro, and garden 
truck planted in narrow strips along the sea. The interior of the 
island has not been cultivated, but the southern half is well adapted 
for cattle, and the northern half for coffee, cacao and cocoa- 
nuts. The climate is healthful and pleasant, the heat being 
tempered by sea breezes. Rainfall is heavy between June and 
December, and the island is occasionally visited by severe 
typhoons. The native inhabitants are mixed Chamorro and Tagal 
blood, not unlike the Filipinos. The most valuable crop is the 
cocoanut (copra). Sugar, coffee, cacao, rice, and maize also are 
cultivated, and much wild timber can be used. About 6,000 head 
of cattle are kept. There is a small export trade, and imports in 
1916-17 amounted to $286,651. The commerce is very small; the 
development of copra-drying is becoming a source of prosperity. 

American Samoa consists chiefly of Tutuila, a small island in 
the eastern part of the Samoan group. Latitude, approximately, 
14° south, longitude 171° west; area, about 77 square miles; popu- 
lation (1916), 5,885. Included with Tutuila are the Manua group 
of three small islands about 60 miles eastward; area, 25 square 
miles; population, 1,665. The islands are delightful as to scenery 
and climate. Tutuila is a naval station of the United States, the 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 289 

commandant being also the governor of the islands. In 1900, Great 
Britain and Germany renounced their claims to all the islands east 
of 171° west longitude in favor of the United States. Copra is 
exported. Pagopago, the harbor of Tutuila, is a coaling station. 
As a strategic position in the Pacific, its importance is second to 
Hawaii only. 

Baker Island is an outlying island of the Phoenix group. Lati- 
tude 0°, longitude 176° west. The island, known also as Nantucket, 
was formally recognized as United States territory about the time 
of the Spanish- American War, 1896. It is about 1,800 miles south- 
west of Hawaii, and at one time was noted for its store of guano. 

Wake Island is an unoccupied volcanic peak belonging to the 
United States. Latitude 19° north, longitude 166° 45' east. It is 
valuable for strategic purposes only. 

Upolu: — see German Samoa, p. 206. 

Upper Senegal — Niger: — see French Possessions, p. 199. 

Uruguay. — A republic of South America. Latitude 30°-35° 
south, longitude 57 ° 40-53 ° 30' west; area, 72,153 square miles; 
population (1917), 1,378,808; capital, Montevideo (1918), 376,163; 
other cities — Paysandu, 21,000; Salto, 19,800. Uruguay was for- 
merly a part of the Spanish possessions of Rio de la Plata, and 
afterwards a province of Brazil. Its independence (1825) was 
affirmed by the treaty of Montevideo in 1828. The country is a 
wide, grassy plain, intersected by a few low mountain ranges. 
The climate is temperate, the rainfall plentiful; the soil is excel- 
lent for grass and grain. The position of Uruguay for trade is 
very favorable, as the sea forms most of its boundaries, and its 
rivers. La Plata and Uruguay, are navigable. The land, mostly in 
large estates, is devoted to pastoral pursuits. Its largest industry 
is grazing, and most of the cattle are turned into jerked beef, which 
is exported to several Latin-American countries. The manufac- 
ture of meat extracts at Fray Bentos is also a large business. Mil- 
lions of sheep thrive, and the exports of wool to Europe and the 
United States are usually large. In addition to the vegetable foods 
consumed at home, wheat and flour are important exports to 
Europe and Brazil. Flax, raised for linseed, is also an important 
export. The chief towTis have railroad communications with 
Montevideo, which is connected by steamship lines wdth Europe 
and the United States. The mineral resources are little utilized, 
and coal is a large import. Races, Spanish-American, Spanish, 



290 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Italian, and Brazilian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Trade is 
chiefly with France, Great Britain, Argentina, United States and 
Italy. Exports (1916-17), $67,515,275; imports, $37,212,230. 

Vancouver Island: — see Canada, p. 176. 

Vanua Levu Island: — see Fiji Islands, p. 193. 

Venezuela. — A republic bordering the north coast of South 
America. Latitude 12°-1° north, longitude 73 ° 40'-59 ° 40' west; 
area, estimated, 398,594 square miles; population (1917), esti- 
mated, 2,827,762; capital, Caracas, estimated, 72,429; other cities — 
Barquisimeto, 27,000; Maracaibo 48,500; Valencia, 58,387, all esti- 
mated and only approximate. Puerto Cabello is the chief port of 
call for most American steamships; La Guaira is the port of 
Caracas with which it is connected by railway. Venezuela seceded 
from New Granada, now Colombia, in 1830. The present constitu- 
tion became effective in 1914. The Orinoco, which drains most of 
the country, is navigable to the rapids at the western border. 

The northern and southern parts of the republic are moun- 
tainous. Between them stretch the wide llanos, or prairies, cov- 
ered with grasses and adapted for cattle raising. The climate is 
tropical, with dry and rainy seasons; it is oppressively hot on the 
coasts. The soil is fertile, but little advantage is taken of this 
source of wealth. Coffee and cacao plantations, mainly in the foot- 
hills, are of great importance, and the chief exports are their prod- 
ucts. Gold is mined in various parts of the republic, but chiefly 
in the Yuruari River district. Petroleum and asphaltum are abun- 
dant but the resources are not developed. Asphalt from Lake 
Bermudez has been exported to the United States. Coffee, cacao, 
and cattle products are the chief exports. Silver and copper are 
found, but the mining industry is not commensurate with the wealth 
in these resources. Political revolutions have retarded the devel- 
opment of the country. The foreign trade is chiefly in the hands 
of foreigners, and the great preponderance is with the United 
States. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, chiefly 
Roman Catholic. Exports (1915-16), $24,968,700; imports, $17,- 
712,000. 

Victoria Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. 

Virgin Islands. — A group of volcanic islands about 50 miles 
east of Porto Rico. Latitude 18° 45'-17° 40' north, longitude 65°- 
64° 30' west. The native population consists chiefly of Negroes. 



DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 291 

Several islands belonging nominally to the group, situated near 
Porto Rico, became possessions of the United States at the close 
of the war with Spain. Of these Culebra and Vieques are the most 
important. The Danish Virgin Islands, St. John, St. Croix, and 
St. Thomas, were purchased by the United States in 1917 as a West 
Indies naval base ; area, 240 square miles. The northerly islands of 
the group belong to Great Britain. Charlotte Amalie, the adminis- 
trative seat of the American islands, has one of the best harbors in 
the West Indies. Road Town is the headquarters of the British 
islands. Cattle products, fiber plants, aloes, and fruits are the 
chief exports. 

Viti Levu Island: — see Fiji Islands, p. 193. 

Wadai: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. 

Wake Island: — see United States, Outlying Territories, p. 285. 

Wallis Archipelago: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. 

Washington Island: — ^see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 

Weihaiwei: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. 

Wellesley Province (Penang) : — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. 

West Falkland Island: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. 

West Indies. — The above-water parts of a partly-submerged 
mountain system extending from Yucatan to the north coast of 
South America, inclosing the Caribbean Sea. They are conveni- 
ently divided into the Greater and the Lesser Antilles. The latter 
are also divided into the Leeward and the Windward Islands. 

Wilson Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. 

Windward Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. 

Yanaon: — see French India, p. 197. 

Yemen.— Formerly a vilayet of Turkey, lying on the west 
coast of Arabia, now independent as a result of the disintegration 
of the Turkish empire. Latitude 18°-12°35' north, longitude 
42°-47° east; area, 73,800 square miles; population, 750,000. Asir 
lies on the north, Aden on the south, and the high desert of Nejed 
on the east. The lowland is tropical desert, the highlands fairly 
well watered. The natives occupy a number of villages, and at 
least two trading ports. Much of the small commerce passes 
through Aden. Part of the country is perhaps the best in Arabia. 
Most of the population are engaged in agriculture. See also 
Arabia. 

Zanzibar Protectorate: — see British East Africa, p. 160. 



APPENDIX 

TREATY OF VERSAILLES— JUNE 28, 1919 

The Treaty of Versailles was signed by the peace plenipoten- 
tiaries of Germany and of twenty-six Allied and Associated 
Powers on June 28, 1919. The United States of America, the 
British Empire, France, Italy and Japan, are described in the 
treaty as the principal Allied and Associated Powers; Belgium, 
Bolivia, Brazil, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, 
the Hejaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Poland, 
Portugal, Rumania, the Serb-Croat-Slovene State; Siam, Czecho- 
slovakia and Uruguay, constitute with the principal powers men- 
tioned above the Allied and Associated Powers of the one part; 
and Germany, of the other part. At the request of the Imperial 
German Government an armistice was granted on November 11, 
1918, to Germany by the principal Allied and Associated Powers in 
order that a treaty of peace might be concluded, bring to a close 
the World War which originated in the declaration of war by 
Austria-Hungary on July 28, 1914, against Serbia; the declaration 
of war by Germany against Russia on August 1, 1914, and against 
France on August 3, 1914. 

Okiginal, Text of Covenant of the League of Nations 

The epoch-making event resulting from the World War and 
the Treaty of Versailles is in the "Covenant of the League of 
Nations," the foundation upon which the Peace Treaty is con- 
structed. It creates within itself a new epoch in human relation- 
ship. Its historical significance is such that the original text is 
here recorded in full (as signed by the peace delegates on June 
28,1919). 

The high contracting parties, in order to promote inter- 
national co-operation and to achieve international peace and 
security by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by 
the prescription of open, just and honorable relations between 
nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of inter- 

292 



TREATY OF VERSAILLES 293 

national law as the actual rule of conduct among Governments, 
and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for 
all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with 
one another, agree to this covenant of the League of Nations, 

Article 1. — The original members of the League of Nations 
shall be those of the signatories which are named in the annex to 
this covenant and also such of those other States named in the 
annex as shall accede without reservation to this covenant. Such 
accession shall be effected by a declaration deposited with the 
secretariat within two months of the coming into force of the cove- 
nant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all other members of the 
League. 

Any fully self-governing State, dominion, or colony not named 
in the annex may become a member of the League if its admission 
is agreed to by two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall 
give effective guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its 
international obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may 
be prescribed by the League in regard to its military, naval and 
air forces and armaments. 

Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of 
its intention so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that 
all its international obligations and all its obligations under this 
covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal. 

Article 2. — The action of the League under this covenant shall 
be effected through the instrumentality of an assembly and of a 
council, with a permanent secretariat. 

Article 3. — The assembly shall consist of representatives of 
the members of the League. 

The assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to 
time as occasion may require at the seat of the League or at such 
other place as may be decided upon. 

The assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within 
the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the 
world. 

At meetings of the assembly each member of the League shall 
have one vote, and may have not more than three representatives. 

Article 4. — The council shall consist of representatives of the 
principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with represen- 
tatives of four other members of the League. These four mem- 



294 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

bers of the League shall be selected by the assembly from time 
to time in its discretion. Until the appointment of the represen- 
tatives of the four members of the League first selected by the 
assembly, representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece 
shall be members of the council. 

With the approval of the majority of the assembly, the coun- 
cil may name additional members of the League whose represen- 
tatives shall always be members of the council; the council with 
like approval may increase the number of members of the League 
to be selected by the assembly for representation on the council. 

The council shall meet from time to time as occasion may 
require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the League, or at 
such other place as may be decided upon. 

The council may deal at its meetings with any matter within 
the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the 
world. 

Any member of the League not represented on the council 
shall be invited to send a representative to sit as a member at 
any meeting of the council during the consideration of matters 
specially affecting the interests of that member of the League. 

At meetings of the council, each member of the League rep- 
resented on the council shall have one vote, and may have not 
more than one representative. 

Article 5. — Except where otherwise expressly provided in this 
covenant or by the terms of the present treaty, decisions at any 
meeting of the assembly or of the council shall require the agree- 
ment of all the members of the League represented at the meet- 
ing. 

All matters of procedure at meetings of the assembly or of 
the council, including the appointment of committees to investi- 
gate particular matters, shall be regulated by the assembly or by 
the council and may be decided by a majority of the members of 
the League represented at the meeting. 

The first meeting of the assembly and the first meeting of the 
council shall be summoned by the President of the United States 
of America. 

Article 6. — The permanent secretariat shall be established at 
the seat of the League. The secretariat shall comprise a Secretary 
General and such secretaries and staff as may be required. 



TREATY OF VERSAILLES 295 

The first Secretary General shall be the person named in the 
annex ; thereafter the Secretary General shall be appointed by the 
council with the approval of the majority of the assembly. 

The secretaries and staff of the secretariat shall be appointed 
by the Secretary General with the approval of the council. 

The Secretary General shall act in that capacity at all meet- 
ings of the assembly and of the council. 

The expenses of the secretariat shall be borne by the mem- 
bers of the League in accordance with the apportionment of the 
expenses of the International Bureau of the Universal Postal 
Union. 

Article 7. — The seat of the League is established at Geneva. 

The council may at any time decide that the seat of the League 
shall be established elsewhere. 

All positions under or in connection with the League, including 
the secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women. 

Representatives of the members of the League and officials 
of the League when engaged on the business of the League shall 
enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities. 

The buildings and other property occupied by the League or 
its officials or by representatives attending its meetings shall be 
inviolable. 

Article 8. — The members of the League recognize that the 
maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national arma- 
ments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the 
enforcement by common action of international obligations. 

The council, taking account of the geographical situation and 
circumstances of each State, shall formulate plans for such reduc- 
tion for the consideration and action of the several Governments. 

Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at 
least every ten years. 

After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Gov- 
ernments, the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be 
exceeded without the concurrence of the council. 

The members of the League agree that the manufacture by pri- 
vate enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to 
grave objections. The council shall advise how the evil effects 
attendant upon such manufacture can be prevented, due regard 
being had to the necessities of those members of the League which 



296 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

are not able to manufacture the munitions and implements of war 
necessary for their safety. 

The members of the League undertake to interchange full and 
frank information as to the scale of their armaments, their mili- 
tary and naval programs and the condition of such of their indus- 
tries as are adaptable to warlike purposes. 

Article 0. — A permanent commission shall be constituted to 
advise the council on the execution of the provisions of Articles 1 
and 8 and on military and naval questions generally. 

Article 10. — The members of the League undertake to respect 
and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integ- 
rity and existing political independence of all members of the 
League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat 
or danger of such aggression the council shall advise upon the 
means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled. 

Article 11. — Any war or threat of war, whether immediately 
affecting any of the members of the League or not, is hereby 
declared a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League 
shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to 
safeguard the peace of nations. In case any such emergency 
should arise the Secretary General shall on the request of any 
member of the League forthwith summon a meeting of the 
council. 

It is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of 
the League to bring to the attention of the assembly or of the 
council any circumstance whatever affecting international rela- 
tions which threatens to disturb international peace or the good 
understanding between nations upon which peace depends. 

Article 12. — The members of the League agree that if there 
should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rup- 
ture, they will submit the matter either to arbitration or to 
inquiry by the council, and they agree in no case to resort to war 
until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the 
report by the council. 

In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators 
shall be made within a reasonable time, and the report of the 
council shall be made within six months after the submission of 
the dispute. 

Article 13. — The members of the League agree that whenever 



TREATY OF VERSAILLES 297 

any dispute shall arise between them which they recognize to be 
suitable for submission to arbitration and which cannot be satis- 
factorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject- 
matter to arbitration. 

Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question 
of international law, as to the existence of any fact which if estab- 
lished would constitute a breach of any international obligation, 
or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any 
such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally 
suitable for submission to arbitration. 

For the consideration of any such dispute the Court of Arbi- 
tration to which the case is referred shall be the court agreed on 
by the parties to the dispute or stipulated in any convention exist- 
ing between them. 

The members of the League agree that they will carry out in 
full good faith any award that may be rendered, and that they 
will not resort to war against a member of the League which com- 
plies therewith. In the event of any failure to carry out such an. 
award, the council shall propose what steps should be taken to 
give effect thereto. 

Article 14. — The council shall formulate and submit to the 
members of the League for adoption plans for the establishment 
of a Permanent Court of International Justice. The court shall 
be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an interna- 
tional character which the parties thereto submit to it. The court 
may also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question 
referred to it by the council or by the assembly. 

Article 15. — If there should arise between members of the 
League any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not sub- 
mitted to arbitration in accordance with Article 13, the members 
of the League agree that they will submit the matter to the coun- 
cil. Any party to the dispute may effect such submission by giving 
notice of the existence of the dispute to the Secretary General, 
who will make all necessary arrangements for a full investigation 
and consideration thereof. 

For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate 
to the Secretary General, as promptly as possible, statements of 
their case with all the relevant facts and papers, and the council 
may forthwith direct the publication thereof. 



298 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

The council shall endeavor to effect a settlement of the dis- 
pute, and if such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made 
public giving such facts and explanations regarding the dispute 
and the terms of settlement thereof as the council may deem 
appropriate. 

If the dispute is not thus settled, the council either unani- 
mously or by a majority vote shall make and publish a report 
containing a statement of the facts of the dispute and the recom- 
mendations which are deemed just and proper in regard thereto. 

Any member of the League represented on the council may 
make a statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclu- 
sions regarding the same. 

If a report by the council is unanimously agreed to by th§ 
members thereof other than the representatives of one or more 
of the parties to the dispute, the members of the League agree 
that they will not go to war with any party to the dispute which 
complies with the recommendations of the report. 

If the council fails to reach a report which is unanimously 
agreed to by the members thereof, other than the representatives 
of one or more of the partis to the dispute, the members of the 
League reserve to themselves the right to take such action as they 
shall consider necessary for the maintenance of right and justice. 

If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, 
and is found by the council to arise out of a matter which by 
international law is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that 
party, the council shall so report, and shall make no recommen- 
dation as to its settlement. 

The council may in any case under this article refer the dis- 
pute to the assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the 
request of either party to the dispute, provided that such request 
be made within fourteen days after the submission of the dispute 
to the council. 

In any case referred to the assembly all the provisions of this 
article and of Article 12 relating to the action and powers of the 
council shall apply to the action and powers of the assembly, pro- 
vided that a report made by the assembly, if concurred in by the 
representatives of those members of the League represented on 
the council and of a majority of the other members of the League, 
exclusive in each case of the representatives of the parties to the 



TREATY OF VERSAILLES 299 

dispute, shall have the same force as a report by the council con- 
curred in by all the members thereof other than the representa- 
tives of one or more of the parties to the dispute. 

Article 16. — Should any member of the League resort to war 
in disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13 or 15, it shall 
ipso facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against all 
other members of the League, which hereby undertake immedi- 
ately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial rela- 
tions, the prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals 
and the nationals of the covenant-breaking State, and the preven- 
tion of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse between 
the nationals of the covenant-breaking State and the nationals of 
any other State, whether a member of the League or not. 

It shall be the duty of the council in such case to recommend 
to the several Governments concerned what effective military, 
naval or air force the members of the League shall severally con- 
tribute to the armed forces to be used to protect the covenants of 
the League. 

The members of the League agree, further, that they will 
mutually support one another in the financial and economic meas- 
ures which are taken under this article, in order to minimize the 
loss and inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and 
that they will mutually support one another in resisting any spe- 
oial measures aimed at one of their number by the covenant- 
l)reaking State, and that they will take the necessary steps to 
afford passage through their territory to the forces of any of the 
members of the League which are co-operating to protect the 
covenants of the League. 

Any member of the League which has violated any covenant 
of the League may be declared to be no longer a member of the 
League by a vote of the council concurred in by the representa- 
tives of all the other members of the League represented thereon. 

Article 17. — In the event of a dispute between a member of 
the League and a State which is not a member of the League, or 
between States not members of the League, the State or States 
not members of the League shall be invited to accept the obliga- 
tions of membership in the League for the purposes of such dis- 
pute, upon such conditions as the council may deem just. If such 
invitation is accepted, the provisions of Articles 12 to 16 inclusive 



300 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

shall be applied with such modifications as may be deemed neces- 
sary by the council. 

Upon such invitation being given the council shall immediately 
institute an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and rec- 
ommend such action as may seem best and most effectual in the 
circumstances. 

If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of 
membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and 
shall resort to war against a member of the League, the provisions 
of Article 16 shall be applicable as against the State taking such 
action. 

If both parties to the dispute when so invited refuse to accept 
the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of 
such dispute, the council may take such measures and make such 
recommendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the 
settlement of the dispute. 

Article 18. — Every treaty or international engagement entered 
into hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith 
registered with the Secretariat and shall as soon as possible be 
published by it. No such treaty or international engagement shall 
be binding until so registered. 

Article 19. — The assembly may from time to time advise the 
reconsideration by members of the League of treaties which have 
become inapplicable and the consideration of international con- 
ditions whose continuance might endanger the peace of the world. 

Article 20. — The members of the League severally agree that 
this covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or under- 
standings inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, 
and solemnly undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any 
engagements inconsistent with the terms thereof. 

In case any member of the League shall, before becoming a 
member of the League, have undertaken any obligations incon- 
sistent with the terms of this covenant, it shall be the duty of such 
member to take immediate steps to procure its release from such 
obligations. 

Article 21. — Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect 
the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbi- 
tration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for 
securing the maintenance of peace. 



TREATY OF VERSAILLES 301 

Article 22. — To those colonies and territories which as a con- 
sequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty 
of the States which formerly governed them and which are in- 
habitd by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the 
strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied 
the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples 
form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the per- 
formance of this trust should be embodied in this covenant. 

The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is 
that the tutelage of such peoples should be intrusted to advanced 
nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their 
geographical position can best undertake this responsibility, and 
who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exer- 
cised by them as mandataries on behalf of the League. 

The character of the mandate must differ according to the 
stage of the development of the people, the geographical situation 
of the territory, its economic conditions and other similar circum- 
stances. 

Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Em- 
pire have reached a stage of development where their existence 
as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to 
the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a man- 
datary until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes 
of these communities must be a principal consideration in the 
selection of the mandatary. 

Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such 
a stage that the mandatary must be responsible for the adminis- 
tration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee 
freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the main- 
tenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such 
as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the 
prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and 
naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than 
police purposes and the defense of territory, and will also secure 
equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other members 
of the League. 

There are territories, such as Southwest Africa and certain of 
the South Pacific islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their 
population or their small size, or their remoteness from the 



302 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

centres of civilization ; or their geographical contiguity to the ter- 
ritory of the mandatary, and other circumstances, can be best 
administered under the laws of the mandatary as integral portions 
of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the 
interests of the indigenous population. 

In every case of mandate the mandatary shall render to the 
council an annual report in reference to the territory committed 
to its charge. 

The degree of authority, control or administration to be exer- 
cised by the mandatary shall, if not previously agreed upon by 
the members of the League, be explicitly defined in each case by 
the council. 

A permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and 
examine the annual reports of the mandataries and to advise the 
council on all matters relating to the observance of the mandates. 

Article 23. — Subject to and in accordance with the provisions 
of international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed 
upon, the members of the League: 

(a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane 

conditions of labor for men, women and children, both 
in their own countries and in all countries to which 
their commercial and industrial relations extend, and 
for that purpose will establish and maintain the neces- 
sary international organizations; 

(b) undertake to secure just treatment of the native in- 

habitants of territories under their control; 

(c) will intrust the League with the general supervision over 

the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic 
in women and children and the traffic in opium and 
other dangerous drugs; 

(d) will intrust the League with the general supervision of 

the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries 
in which the control of this traffic is necessary in the 
common interest; 

(e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of 

communications and of transit and equitable treatment 
for the commerce of all members of the League. In 
this connection the special necessities of the regions 



TREATY OF VERSAILLES 303 

devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be borne 
in mind; 
(f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international 
concern for the prevention and control of disease. 

Article 24. — There shall be placed under the direction of the 
League all international bureaus already established by general 
treaties if the parties to such treaties consent. All such inter- 
national bureaus and all commissions for the regulation of mat- 
ters of international interest hereafter constituted shall be placed 
under the direction of the League. 

In all matters of international interest which are regulated by 
general conventions but which are not placed under the control 
of international bureaus or commissions, the secretariat of the 
League shall, subject to the consent of the council and if desired 
by the parties, collect and distribute all relevant information and 
shall render any other assistance which may be necessary or 
desirable. 

The council may include as part of the expenses of the secre- 
tariat the expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed 
under the direction of the League. 

Article 25. — The members of the League agree to encourage 
and promote the establishment and co-operation of duly authorized 
voluntary national Red Cross organizations having as purposes 
the improvement of health, the prevention of disease and the miti- 
gation of suffering throughout the world. 

Article 26. — Amendments to this covenant will take effect 
when ratified by the members of the League whose representatives 
compose the council and by a majority of the members of the 
League whose representatives compose the assembly. 

No such amendment shall bind any member of the League 
which signifies its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease 
to be a member of the League. 



304 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

Annex 

I. Original members of the League of Nations signatories of the 
treaty of peace. 

United States of America. Haiti. 

Belgium. Hejaz. 

Bolivia. Honduras. 

Brazil. Italy. 

British Empire. Japan. 

Canada. Liberia. 

Australia. Nicaragua. 

South Africa. Panama. 

New Zealand. Peru. 

India. Poland. 

China. Portugal. 

Cuba. Rumania. 

Ecuador. • Serb-Croat-Slovene State. 

France. Siam. 

Grreece. Czecho-Slovakia. 

Guatemala. Uruguay. 

States invited to accede to the covenant. 
Argentine Republic. Persia. 

Chile. Salvador. 

Colombia. Spain. 

Denmark. Sweden. 

Netherlands. Switzerland. 

Norway. Venezuela. 

Paraguay. 

II. First Secretary General of the League of Nations. 

The Honorable Sir James Eric Drummond, K.C.M.G., C.B. 



This is a transcript from the official record of the covenant of 
the League of Nations as promulgated at the Versailles Peace Con- 
ference and subject to ratification by the signatory powers. 



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